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<p><span class="style117"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style74"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style69 style31"><span class="MsoNormal style78"><span class="style18 style117"><span class="style36 style26"><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span class="style18 style117"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span 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style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; 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mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", 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COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span 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mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><font color="#1f1a17" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span 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style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; 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style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: 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mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span 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style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; 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style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17"><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"times new roman", times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight:bold'><span style="font-family: color: #336699"Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-style: italic;"><span style=""><span style=""><span style='mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; 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></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></font></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></font></span></FONT></span><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<BASEFONT SIZE="3">
</font></p>
<p><font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style107">Muslim Society, Radical Islam, and Terrorism </span></font>
</p>
</div>
<P ALIGN="CENTER"><span class="style109">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Dr.-Ing. Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie<br>
Former President of Indonesia
</FONT></span></P>
<table width="609" height="153" border="0" align="center">
<tr>
<td width="173" height="123" valign="top"><p><img src="HabibiePS_18k.jpg" width="136" height="160"></p></td>
<td width="426" rowspan="2" valign="middle"><p class="style110"><span class="style96">Professor Dr.-Ing. Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie </span><br>
<em><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">"<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">No evidence (historical or otherwise) indicates that support for suicide terrorism will evaporate...achieving at least some fundamental goals that suicide bombers and supporting communities share." </FONT> </FONT></FONT> </FONT></em> <br>
<em></em></p></td>
</tr>
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<td width="173" height="17" valign="top"> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style99"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Giving a presentation on Muslim society, radical Islam, and terrorism today is a challenge; there are many questions. Are radicalism and terrorism typical Islamic or Muslim behaviors? Does only Islam make radical and terrorist acts possible? Are radicalism and terrorism only religious affairs? What is fundamentalism? What is meant by radicalism? What is terrorism? What is the relation between fundamentalism, radicalism, and terrorism? </FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER">
<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><B><span class="style109">THE HISTORY OF FUNDAMENTALISM</span></B></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Thomas Meyer, a German political science scholar in the 1980s, defined
fundamentalism as follows: “Fundamentalism is an arbitrary concluding movement,
against any kind of modernization processes, in politics, philosophies
and religions.” Representatives of certain political convictions who make
radical demands and are not willing to compromise or to exercise tolerance
are also called fundamentalists. In addition, people’s movements that have
philosophical thoughts and analysis consistent with “basic principles”
and “basic understanding” are also called fundamentalist.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Allow me now to present some analyses of religious fundamentalism, especially
the monotheistic religion that has its roots in Abraham and that uses the
holy book as its basic fundament and reference.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Religions that accept “messages from God” as written in their holy book
(Torah, Bible, or Al Qur`an) are facing similar problems in the messages’ interpretation and their implementation in daily life. The language, culture,
and even grammar that were in place when these holy books were written
play a very decisive role in their interpretation. So studying and understanding
the impact such traditions and behaviors have had might be helpful.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> The Torah (Talmud, Babbly) has been interpreted for 5,764 years, the Bible
(Syllabus, Tradition) 2,004 years, and the Al Qur´an (Sunna, Hadith) 1,425
years. But while the Jewish religion is more than two times older than
Christianity and about four times older than Islam, only 0.3% of the world’s
population is Jewish compared with 33.2% Christians and 19.9% Muslims—
a combined 53.4% of the world’s population. In addition, while all three
have the same roots in Abraham and share common ethic and moral values,
the Jewish religion is for Jewish people only while the other two religions
are open to anyone, independent of culture, race, or ethnic background.
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Interpreting the holy books in a multicultural and multitraditional society
can create complex problems because of their incompatibility with modern
life and progress. Some who believe that the Bible cannot be reconciled
with the view of the origin of life put forward by Charles Darwin oppose
the teaching of evolution. Biblical criticism also gained momentum in the
1920s and antievolution crusaders lobbied for legislation to prevent the
teaching of evolution in the public schools. John T. Scopes, a science
teacher in the small town of Dayton, Ohio, served as defendant against
the charge of having taught evolution. Religious fundamentalism came into
its own in opposition to modernist tendencies in American religious and
secular life. In the late twentieth century, the movement was represented
by numerous church bodies, educational institutions, and special-interest
organizations.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> In a global economy, where information technologies are developing very
fast, making information available in almost every corner of private life,
in any place and at any time, could trigger a confrontation of progress
and culture. If this happened, global radicalism and global terrorism might
be impossible to control.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER"><span class="style111"><FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">DEFINITIONS OF TERMS</FONT></span></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style112">What is meant by radicalism?</span> </FONT><span class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This is change of the most fundamental type,
transforming not only the structure of government but all of polity. Such
change is not limited to political life but also transforms social order,
morality, and social values. The consequences of such change are felt not
only where they occur but in many other political systems in which fundamental
revolution occurred. These major revolutions result in a basic change in
how all people in all political systems view the nature of politics and
the purpose of political life. For example, the independence movements
in colonial empires following World War II were fueled by principles of
individual liberty and representative government that were once the slogans
of eighteenth-century American and French revolutionaries.
</FONT></span></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Marxist revolutionary concepts emphasizing economic progress and radical
social change have shaped the development of many new nations. The continuing
impact of such ideas is an example of another way in which fundamental
political change occurs. However, political systems may be transformed
not only suddenly or violently in the course of revolution but by the gradual,
corrosive influence of ideas and by the accumulating impact of different
political philosophies.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style115">What is terrorism?</span></FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Definitions of terrorism are usually complex and controversial,
and, because of the inherent ferocity and violence of terrorism, an intense
stigma has become attached to the term. But though terrorism implies an
act of violence by a state against its domestic enemies, since the twentieth
century the term has been applied most frequently to violence aimed, either
directly or indirectly, against governments in order to influence policy
or topple the existing regime.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> In order to attract and maintain the publicity necessary to generate widespread
fear, terrorists must engage in increasingly dramatic, violent, and high-profile
attacks. These have included hijackings, hostage takings, kidnappings,
car bombings, and, frequently, suicide bombings. Although apparently random,
terrorist attacks are often carefully aimed at their victims and locations
in order to achieve the greatest shock value. The goal of terrorism generally
is to destroy the public’s sense of security in the places most familiar
to them. Schools, shopping centers, bus and train stations, restaurants,
and nightclubs have been targeted both because they attract large crowds
and because they are places with which civilians are familiar and in which
they feel at ease. Targets can also include buildings or other locations
that are important economic or political symbols, such as embassies or
military installations. The hope of the terrorist is that the sense of
terror his acts engender will induce the population to pressure political
leaders toward a specific political end.
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The standard definition used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
of the United States describes terrorism as “the unlawful use of force
and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government,
the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political
or social objectives.”
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Since the twentieth century, ideology and political opportunism have led
a number of countries to engage in transnational terrorism, often under
the guise of supporting movements of national liberation. Hence, there
is a common saying that “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.”
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> However, the distinction between terrorism and other forms of political
violence became especially blurred when guerrilla groups began to employ
terrorist tactics and issues of jurisdiction and legality became similarly
obscured. These problems have led some social scientists to adopt a definition
of terrorism based not on criminality but on the fact that the victims
of terrorist violence are most often innocent civilians.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Even this definition is flexible, however, and on occasion it has been
expanded to include various other factors, such as that terrorist acts
are clandestine or surreptitious, that terrorists choose their victims
randomly, and that terrorist acts are intended to create an overwhelming
sense of fear.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> It is vital to bear in mind, however, that there are many kinds of terrorist
movements, and no single theory can cover them all. Not only are the aims,
members, beliefs, and resources of groups engaged in terrorism extremely
diverse, but so are the political contexts of their campaigns.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> One popular typology identifies three broad classes of terrorism: Revolutionary
terrorism; Sub-revolutionary terrorism; and Establishment terrorism. Although
this typology has been criticized as not exhaustive, it provides a useful
framework for understanding and evaluating terrorist activities.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style115">Revolutionary terrorism</span> </FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">is arguably the most common form. Practitioners
of this type of terrorism seek the complete abolition of a political system
and its replacement with new structures.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style115">Sub-revolutionary terrorism</span></FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> is rather less common. It is used not to overthrow
an existing regime but to modify the existing sociopolitical structure.
Since this modification is often accomplished through the threat of deposing
the existing regime, sub-revolutionary groups are somewhat more difficult
to identify.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style113"><I>Establishment terrorism</I>,</span></FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> often called state or state-sponsored terrorism,
is employed by governments—or more often by factions within governments—against
that government’s citizens, against factions within the government, or
against foreign governments or groups. This type of terrorism is very common
but difficult to identify, mainly because the state’s support is always
clandestine.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style115">A martyr</span></FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> is someone who voluntarily suffers death rather than deny his
religion or ideology or conviction by words or deeds. The French Revolution
added ideological, social, and national principles to religious conviction
as reasons for terrorist/martyr action. A martyr’s action is afforded special,
institutional recognition that greatly influences the terrorist to sacrifice
his life or something of great value for the sake of principle.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Persecution throughout its history has engendered in Judaism an explicit
ideal of martyrdom. It began with Abraham, who according to legend was
cast into a lime kiln and saved from the fire by divine grace. The tradition
was continued by Isaac, who consented to be sacrificed by his father, and
by Daniel, whose example compelled the popular imagination.
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> The first Christian martyrs were St. Stephen and St. James. Of the apostles
the most important martyrs were St. Peter and St. Paul, who were both put
to death in Rome. Since the most striking witness that Christians could
bear to their faith was to die rather than to deny it, the word martyr
soon began to be used in reference to one who was not only a witness but
specifically a witness unto death.
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The Islamic designation shahid (Arabic: “Witness”) is equivalent to and
in a sense derivative of the Judaeo-Christian concept of a martyr. The
full sense of “witness unto death” does not appear in the Qur’an but receives
explicit treatment in the subsequent Hadith literature, in which it is
stated that martyrs, among the hosts of heaven, stand nearest the throne
of God. While details of the status accorded by martyrdom (e.g., whether
or not a martyr is exempt from certain rituals of burial) have been debated
among dogmatists, it is generally agreed that the rank of shahid comprises
two groups of the faithful:
</FONT></P>
<UL class="style110">
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Those killed in a jihad, or holy war </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Those killed unjustly </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
</UL>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The term is used informally to venerate anyone who dies in a pitiable manner
(e.g., in childbirth; in a strange land). Among the Shiite branch, the
martyr par excellence is Husayn ibn Ali (c. 629–680), whose death at the
hands of the rival Sunni faction under Yazid is commemorated every year
during the first 10 days of the month of Muharram. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">While distinctly lacking a history of persecution or of violent conflict
with other faiths, Buddhism does recognize among its adherents a venerable
class of martyrs. The Jataka (q.v.) commentary on the former lives of the
Buddha is in a sense a “martyrology” of the bodhisattva (“Buddha-to-be”),
recounting their continual self-sacrifice and repeated deaths. In Mahayana
(Greater Vehicle) Buddhism, the decision by one destined to become a Buddha
in this or another life to postpone his own enlightenment to alleviate
the suffering of others is regarded as martyrdom (see bodhisattva). </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER" class="style113 style114">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">THE HISTORY OF TERRORISM</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Let us now look at the history of terrorism. The earliest authenticated
mention of “<I>Thugs</I>” took place about 1356 (though there was a report of
the use of Thugs in the seventh century). Thugs were members of a well-organized
confederacy of professional assassins who traveled in gangs throughout
India for several hundred years. They insinuated themselves into the confidence
of wayfarers and, when a favorable opportunity presented itself, they would
strangle the people with a handkerchief or a noose. Hindus appear to have
been associated with Thugs at an early period. In the last three hundred
years of Thugs’ existence, they killed around one million people, considered
to be the largest number of people ever killed by a purely religious fundamentalist
terrorist organization. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, a religious-political Islamic
Shiite sect was known for murdering its enemies as a religious duty. These
people were called <I>Assassins</I>, from the Arabic word “assas,” meaning guard
and hashish smoker (this referred to the Assassins’ alleged practice of
taking hashish to induce ecstatic visions of paradise before setting out
to face martyrdom). The Assassins might be the first terrorist organization
using religious martyrdom for political purposes to fight against a militarily
stronger enemy. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">In 1090, the Assassin Hasan and his allies captured the hill fortress of
Alamut near Kazvin, Iran. From this fortress, Hasan, as grand master or
leader of the sect, commanded a chain of strongholds all over Iran and
Iraq as well as a network of propagandists, a corps of devoted terrorists,
and an unknown number of agents in enemy camps and cities. In the early
twelfth century the Assassins extended their activities to Syria, where
the expansion of the Seljuk rule had created a favorable climate for terrorist
activities by extremist elements among the local Shiite minority. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Assassin power came to an end as the Mongols under Hulegu captured Assassin
castles in Iran. In 1256 Alamut itself fell. The term Assassin then moved
on from Syria to Europe, where the Crusaders took it, and acquired its
present meaning of one who murders a politically important person either
by hire or from fanatical motives. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">In modern history the Japanese Army, during World War I, used martyrs for
political and ideological interests. They introduced the so-called <I>Kamikaze
Weapon System</I>, which consisted of Japanese pilots, mostly between 20 and
25 years old, who deliberately crashed into enemy targets (around 4,500
times) and committed suicide. The word kamikaze means “divine wind,” referring
to a typhoon that fortuitously dispersed a Mongol invasion fleet that threatened
Japan from the west in 1281. Most of the kamikaze planes were ordinary
fighters or light bombers, usually loaded with bombs and extra gasoline
tanks before being flown into their targets. Kamikaze flights were most
prevalent from the Battle of Leyte Gulf, in October of 1944, to the end
of the war. The attacks sank 34 ships and damaged hundreds of others. At
Okinawa they inflicted the greatest losses ever suffered by the U.S. Navy
in a single battle, killing almost 5,000 men. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER" class="style109">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><B>TERRORIST PHILOSOPHIES</B></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style110"><span class="style113"><I>Nihilism</I></span></span></FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000"><span class="style110"> (from the Latin nihil, meaning “nothing”) is a philosophy of skepticism
that originated in nineteenth-century Russia during the early years of
the reign of Alexander II. A well-known conservative Russian journalist,
Mikhail N. Katkov, was mainly responsible for interpreting nihilism as
synonymous with revolution, and presented nihilism as a social menace because
of its negation of all moral principles. The philosophy then became associated
erroneously with political terror employed by people active in clandestine
organizations against absolutism. </span></FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">If, to the conservative elements, nihilists were the curse of the time,
to the liberals they represented a mere transitory factor in the development
of national thought, a stage in the struggle for individual freedom, and
the true spirit of the rebellious young generation. They defined nihilism
as a symbol of the struggle against all forms of tyranny, hypocrisy, and
artificiality. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Fundamentally, nihilism represented a philosophy of negation of all forms
of aestheticism; it advocated utilitarianism and scientific rationalism
and rejected the social sciences and classical philosophical systems entirely.
Nihilism represented a crude form of positivism and materialism, a revolt
against the established social order, and negated all authority exercised
by the state, the church, and the family. It was based on belief in nothing
but scientific truth; science was the cure-all for social problems, which
nihilists believed derived from ignorance. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Since nihilists denied the duality of man as a combination of body and
soul, of spiritual and material substance, they came into violent conflict
with ecclesiastical authorities. And since they questioned the doctrine
of divine right, they came into similar conflict with secular authorities.
In addition, because they scorned all social bonds and family authority,
conflict between fathers and sons became immanent. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The term “<I>anarchy</I>” is derived from the Greek root anarchos, meaning “without
authority.” The words anarchism, anarchist, and anarchy are used to express
both approval and disapproval. They encompass laws that are not carried
into effect, authorities without force and despised, crime unpunished,
property attacked, violation of the safety of the individual, corrupted
morality, lack of a constitution, lack of government, and lack of justice.
These words could serve as a model for the denunciations delivered by all
opponents of anarchism. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Anarchists deny man-made laws, regard property as a means of tyranny, and
believe that crime is merely the product of property and authority. But
they would argue that their denial of constitutions and governments leads
to the “real justice” inherent in the free development of man’s natural
inclination, when unfettered by laws, to live according to the principles
and practice of mutual aid. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">All of the conflict-based sources of nihilistic and anarchistic thoughts
became the roots of non-religious fundamental terrorist acts. One can only
wonder what would happen if religious and non-religious fundamental terrorists
were to cooperate and use martyrdom against targets to achieve common political
interests.</FONT></FONT></P>
<P align="center" class="style117"><FONT SIZE="4" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><B>TERRORIST ACTS AND ACTORS</B></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">September 11, 2001,was the day when Islamic extremists and the terrorist
group Al-Qaeda struck targets in the United States. The attacks caused
extensive death and destruction and triggered an enormous U.S. effort to
combat terrorism. Some 2,800 victims were killed in New York, 184 at the
Pentagon, and 40 in Pennsylvania; all 19 terrorists died. The emotional
distress caused by the attacks, particularly the collapse of the Twin Towers,
New York City’s most visible landmark, was overwhelming. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The hijackers, 15 Saudis and 4 others of Middle Eastern origin, were young
single males from middle-class families who had established themselves
in the United States prior to the attacks. All were recruited in Europe
by religious organizations connected with Al-Qaeda when most were enrolled
in a secular higher education curriculum. No personality defects were evident
before the attack, and none were discovered afterward despite intense scrutiny. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Recent research indicates that suicide terrorists from the Middle East
have no appreciable psychopathology and are as educated and economically
well-off as surrounding populations. Newer studies also confirm earlier
reports showing that suicide terrorists and their supporters are not impoverished,
uneducated, spiteful, or socially disfavored. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">If the assassination of Franz Ferdinand Erzherzog Von Österreich-este in
Sarajevo in June of 1914 was the immediate cause of World War I and the
Pearl Harbor attack of 1941 precipitated the entry of the United States
into World War II, the terrorist attacks on the Twin Towers on 11 September,
2001, could be considered the beginning of the “Global War” against terrorism.
However, while the World Wars were international conflicts that embroiled
most of the nations of Europe, North America, Asia, the Middle East, and
other regions, the Global War is an international conflict against an invisible
global terror network without an identified citizenship, nationality, race,
ethnic heritage, religion, headquarters location, or army. The threat this
network poses is completely different from any the human race has ever
faced before, and needs an appropriately sophisticated strategy and paradigm
that all nations and organizations of the world must develop. And there
must be no negotiations and no compromise, but a better understanding of
the principles of terrorism in order to counter and end terrorist acts. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">In an analysis model based on incentive, if terrorists are considered criminals
as well as rational individuals acting on self-interest, they will choose
illegal activity if the rewards exceed the probability of detection, incarceration,
and loss of income from legal activity (“opportunity costs”). Insofar as
criminals lack skill and education, as in much blue-collar crime, opportunity
costs may be minimal, so crime will pay. (Such rational-choice theories
based on economic opportunities do not reliably account for some types
of violent crimes, including domestic homicide and hate killings). However,
these calculations make even less sense for suicide terrorism, since suicide
terrorists generally are not lacking in legitimate life opportunities relative
to their general population. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">If martyrs had nothing to lose, sacrifice would be senseless: “He or she
who commits suicide kills himself or herself for his or her own benefit,
he or she who commits martyrdom sacrifices himself or herself for the sake
of his or her religion and his or her nation.” Although humiliation and
despair may help account for susceptibility to martyrdom in some situations,
this is neither a complete explanation nor one applicable to other circumstances. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Suicide terrorists apparently span their population’s normal distribution
in terms of education, socioeconomic status, and personality type (introvert
vs. extrovert). The mean age for bombers is the early twenties. Almost
all are unmarried and expressed religious belief before recruitment (but
no more than did the general population). Except for being young unattached
males, suicide bombers differ from members of violent racist organizations
with whom they are often compared. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">Overall, suicide terrorists exhibit no socially dysfunctional attributes
(fatherless, friendless, or jobless) or suicidal symptoms. They do not
vent a fear of enemies or express hopelessness or a sense of nothing to
lose for lack of life alternatives that would be consistent with economic
rationality. When they join terrorist groups, charismatic trainers intensely
cultivate their mutual commitment to die within small cells of three to
six members. In a final step before they martyr themselves, they engage
in a formal social contract, usually a video testament. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">From 1996 to 1999 Nasra Hassan, a Pakistani relief worker, interviewed
nearly 250 Palestinian recruiters and trainers, failed suicide bombers,
and relatives of deceased bombers. Bombers were men aged 18 to 38: “None
were uneducated, desperately poor, simple-minded, or depressed…They all
seemed to be entirely normal members of their families.” Yet “all were
deeply religious,” believing their actions “sanctioned by the divinely
revealed religion of Islam.” Leaders of sponsoring organizations complained, “Our biggest problem is the hordes of young men who beat on our doors.” </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Previously, recruiters scouted mosques, schools, and refugee camps for
candidates deemed susceptible to intense religious indoctrination and logistical
training. Despite these changes, there is little to indicate overall change
in bomber profiles (mostly unmarried, average socioeconomic status, moderately
religious). Motivation and commitment are evident in the willingness to
sacrifice material and emotional comforts (families, jobs, physical security)
and to pay their own way from their homes to travel long distances. Thus,
a critical factor in determining suicidal terrorist behavior is arguably
loyalty to intimate cohorts of peers, which recruiting organizations often
promote through religious communion. Such sentiments characterize institutional
manipulation of emotionally driven commitments that may have emerged under
natural selection’s influence to refine or override short-term rational
calculations that would otherwise preclude achieving goals against long
odds. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Most typically, such emotionally driven commitments serve as survival mechanisms
to inspire action in otherwise paralyzing circumstances, as when a weaker
person convincingly menaces a stronger person into thinking twice before
acting. In religiously inspired suicide terrorism, however, these emotions
are purposely manipulated by organizational leaders, recruiters, and trainers
to benefit the organization rather than the individual. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">And, increasingly, many view martyr acts as most meaningful. During the
summer of 2002, 70% to 80% of Palestinians endorsed martyr operations.
The frequency and violence of suicide attacks are escalating (there have
been more bombings since February 2002 than from 1993 to2000); planning
is less painstaking. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Detainees evince little history of personal grievance, but frequently cite
older relatives and respected community members who participated in earlier
Jihads as influencing decisions to join the fight. Many told interrogators
that if released from detention they would return to jihad. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">However, little tangible benefit (in terms of rational choice theories)
accrues to the suicide bomber, certainly not enough to result in maximized “expected utility.” Heightened social recognition occurs only after death,
obviating personal material benefit. But for leaders who almost never consider
killing themselves (despite declarations of readiness to die), material
benefits more likely outweigh losses in martyrdom operations. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER" class="style109">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><B>COUNTERING TERRORISM</B></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">For the sponsoring organization, suicide bombers are expendable assets
whose losses generate more assets by expanding public support and pools
of potential recruits. Money flows from those willing to let others die,
easily offsetting operational costs (training, supporting personnel, safe
houses, explosives and other arms, transportation, and communication).
Massive retaliation further increases people’s sense of victimization and
readiness to behave according to organizational doctrines and policies
structured to take advantage of such feelings. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">A middle line of defense, penetrating and destroying recruiting organizations
and isolating their leaders, may be successful in the near term, but even
more resistant organizations could emerge instead. The first line of defense
is to drastically reduce receptivity of potential recruits to recruiting
organizations—but how can this be done? </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Raising literacy rates may have no effect and could be counterproductive
should greater literacy translate into greater exposure to terrorist propaganda.
Lessening poverty may also have no effect, and could be counterproductive
if poverty reduction for the entire population amounted to a downward redistribution
of wealth that left those initially better off with fewer opportunities
than before. Ethnic profiling, isolation, and preemptive attacks on potential
supporters of terrorism probably will not help either. Ending occupation
or reducing perceived humiliation may help, but not if the population believes
this to be a victory inspired by terror. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">If suicide bombing is crucially (though not exclusively) an institution-level
phenomenon, it may require finding the right mix of pressure and inducements
to get the communities themselves to abandon support for institutions that
recruit suicide attackers. One way is to so damage the community’s social
and political fabric that any support by the local population or authorities
for sponsors of suicide attacks collapses. However, other research suggests
that most people have more moderate views than what they consider their
group norm to be. Inciting and empowering moderates from within to confront
inadequacies and inconsistencies in their own knowledge (of others as evil),
values (respect for life), and behavior (support for killing), and that
of other members of their group, can produce emotional dissatisfaction
leading to lasting change and influence on the part of these individuals.
Funding for civic education and debate may also help interfaith confidence
building through intercommunity initiatives. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Another strategy is for the United States and its allies to change their
behavior by directly addressing and lessening sentiments of grievance and
humiliation, especially in Palestine, where images of daily violence have
made it the global focus of Moslem attention. No evidence (historical or
otherwise) indicates that support for suicide terrorism will evaporate
without complicity in achieving at least some fundamental goals that suicide
bombers and supporting communities share. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Of course, this does not mean negotiating overall goals, such as Al-Qaeda’s
quest to replace the Western-inspired system of nation-states with a global
caliphate, first in Moslem lands and then everywhere. Throughout mankind’s
history, all efforts to achieve global control through an economic, political,
and/or military system have always failed. Perhaps instead we need research
to understand which configurations of psychological and cultural relationships
are luring and binding thousands, possibly millions, of mostly ordinary
people into terrorist organizations’ martyr-making web. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Study is needed to see how terrorist institutions form and to uncover similarities
and differences across organizational structures, recruiting practices,
and recruited populations. Are there reliable differences between religious
and secular groups, or between ideologically driven and grievance-driven
terrorism? We also need to investigate any significant causal relations
between modern democratic society’s policies and actions and those of terrorist
organizations and supporters. We may find that the global economic, political,
and cultural agenda of a modern democratic civil society has a catalyzing
role in moves to retreat from our worldview (the Taliban) or to create
a global counterweight (Al-Qaeda). </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Funding such research may be difficult. As with the somewhat tendentious
and self-serving use of terror as a policy concept to reduce dissonance,
governments and the media may wish to ignore these relations as legitimate
topics for inquiry into what terrorism is all about and why it exists.
A call for research may demand more patience than any administration could
politically tolerate during times of crisis. In the long run, however,
a society can ill afford to ignore either the consequences of its own actions
or the causes behind the actions of others. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P align="center" class="style109"><FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><B>RESEARCH INTO SUICIDE BOMBERS</B></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">Two important documents crucial to the war on terrorism were recently released
in the United States. On May 23, 2003, the U.S. General Accounting Office
delivered its final report to Congress on “Combating Terrorism.” On June
3, 2003, the Pew Research Center published the latest installment of a
multi-year survey on global attitudes to political policies and social
values. Social psychologists have long documented what they call “the fundamental
attribution error,” an interpretation bias that seems to be especially
prevalent in individualistic cultures such as those of the United States
and Western Europe. In contrast, many cultures in Africa and Asia in which
a collectivist ethic is more prevalent show less susceptibility to such
judgments. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">What leads a normal person to suicide terrorism? The primacy of situational
over personality factors suggests the futility of attempts to psychologically
profile the suicide terrorist. There seems to be a general agreement among
psychologists that there is no particular psychological attribute that
can be used to describe the terrorist or any personality that is distinctive
of terrorists. People who have joined terrorist groups have come from a
wide variety of cultures, nationalities, and ideological causes, all strata
of society, and diverse populations. Their personalities and characteristics
are as diverse as those of people in the general population. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Months, sometimes years, of intense indoctrination can lead to “blind obedience” no matter who the individual is, as indicated in research on people who
become torturers for their governments. However, despite numerous studies
of individual behavior in group contexts that show situation to be a much
better predictor than personality, the Pew survey found that Americans
overwhelmingly believe that personal decision, success, and failure depend
upon individual choice, responsibility, and personality. But most of the
world disagrees. This is plausibly one reason why Americans tend to think
of terrorists as homicidal maniacs whereas the rest of the world tends
not to. Whether because of a fundamental attribution error or willful blindness
to avoid dissonance with one’s own world view, Americans also mostly view
attempts to understand what motivates terrorism at best as a waste of time,
at worst pandering to terrorism. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">What terrorists dislike about America is not the country’s internal liberties
or culture, but its external actions and foreign policy. Historical data
show a strong correlation between U.S. involvement in international situations
and an increase in terrorist attacks against the United States. There seems
to be a direct correlation between U.S. military and counterinsurgency
aid, human-rights abuses by the governments being aided, and a rise in
terrorism. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT">
<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000"><span class="style110">Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch regularly document horrific
and massive humans-rights abuses occurring in countries that receive the
most U.S. aid in absolute terms. A recent National Research Council report, “Discouraging Terrorism,” finds that: “With respect to political context,
terrorism and its supporting audiences appear to be fostered by policies
of extreme political repression and discouraged by policies of incorporating
both dissident and moderate groups responsibly into civil society and the
political process.” The situation may be critical in central Asia, an area
of intensified U.S. intervention where anti-American and pro-radical Islamic
sentiment is rapidly rising and Al-Qaeda appears to be relocating.</span></FONT></FONT><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" SIZE="3" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000"> </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P align="center" class="style109"><FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><B>PARTNERSHIP INITIATIVES IN THE WAR AGAINST TERROR</B></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">The goal of reducing support for terrorism by strengthening the partnership
initiative and winning the war of ideas involves counterterrorism aid,
including law enforcement training and military assistance to promote national
security interests by contributing to global and regional stability. It
also involves strengthening military support for democratically elected
governments and fostering democratic values, including respect for internationally
recognized civil and human rights in order to kindle the hopes and aspirations
of freedom. The “new partners in the war on terrorism” have been condemned
by Amnesty International and Human Rights watch for increasing human rights
abuses. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">As for winning the war of ideas about democracy and personal freedoms,
the Pew survey strongly suggests that Muslim opinion in favor of these
values means that the war has already been won. This raises suspicion that
the call to battle against haters of democracy and freedom, such as the
alarms raised about Iraq’s imminent use of weapons of mass destruction
and its ties to Al-Qaeda, are cynically designed to rally the home front
for a strategic push into south and central Asia. The Pew survey intimates
that, except for America, much of the world thinks so. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER" class="style114 style117">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><B>THE INDONESIAN EXPERIENCE</B></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Indonesians can be considered to be religious people. Indeed Indonesia
is a religious society. Long before Islam and Christianity entered Indonesia,
Hinduism and Buddhism were already well established. Islam entered and
expanded in Indonesia peacefully through trade in three areas: </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<UL class="style110">
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Through Aceh, the northern part of Sumatra, and the eastern part of Indonesia
in the tenth century, by Arabs traders </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Through Aceh and other parts of Sumatra in the eleventh century, through
Indian/Gujarati traders </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Through Java and the southern part of Sumatra in the eleventh century,
through Chinese traders </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
</UL>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Since the thirteenth century, Islam has blossomed in Indonesia, and many
Islamic kingdoms and sultanates were established and developed in the maritime
continent. Therefore, in most literature, Islam is considered to have entered
Indonesia in the thirteenth century and then systematically expanded not
only through trading activities but also through preaching and cultural
approaches. It was peacefully adapted to, and assimilated in harmony with,
the local traditions and cultures inherited from the Hindu and Buddhist
cultures. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Islam then expanded throughout the country via five religious institutions:a)
prominent personalities in society; b) the establishment of mosques; c)
adaptation and assimilation into existing local traditions and cultures;
d) education (boarding schools or pesantren) and e) social activities,
including marriage. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Especially in Java, these five networks were successfully created, developed,
implemented, and monitored by the “Nine Wise Men,” or “Wali Songo.” </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The colonial masters brought in Christianity: The Catholic Church came
in through the Portuguese people in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
and the Protestant Church came in through the Dutch people in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Islamic movement was influenced
as well as driven by the following organizations: a) Syarikat Dagang Islam
or Islamic Trading Society, established in 1904 and renamed Syarikat Islam
or Islamic Society in 1911; today this organization has developed into
several other Islamic organizations. b) Muhammadiyah, established in 1912
and c) Nahdatul Ulama, established in 1926. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Although 87.6% of the 220 million Indonesian people are Moslem, and Indonesia
has the biggest Moslem society in the world, it is not an Islamic state.
Indonesia is a secular though very religious republic in which various
religions have been peacefully adopted and whose followers have lived in
harmony and peace for centuries. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">However, long before the Bali bombings of October 2002, the word terrorism
was applied to certain kinds of violence in Indonesia. In the late 1970s,
the Indonesian government termed a series of related murders and robberies
in Java the “Warman’s terror,” after one of the perpetrators. In 1981,
the hijacking of an Indonesian airliner by a group led by a former thug-turned-militant
Muslim was deemed a terrorist act, for which the main plotters were executed.
During an intensive counterinsurgency campaign in the early 1990s in Aceh,
some Acehnes used the term terror to describe acts committed by the army
against suspected pro-independence rebels. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">But before the attacks on the World Trade Center, there was never any suggestion
that acts of terror carried out in Indonesia had any links to organizations
or individuals outside Indonesia’s borders. Indonesians began going to
the Pakistan-Afghanistan border for military training in 1985 and some
of the first graduates of that training became the leaders of what later
came to be known as Jemaah Islamiyah, which was created on January 1,1993,
while the Afghan training program was still underway. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The origins of Jemaah Islamiyah, however, lay in the Darul Islam movement
in Indonesia that started in 1949 as a rebellion in west Java. The movement
was against the fledgling Indonesian government for ceding too much to
the Dutch in order to have a peaceful end to Indonesia’s independence struggle.
Led by a man named Kartosoewirjo, it ended up as a movement to establish
an Islamic state in the 1950s out of large swaths of west Java and parts
of central Java. The movement was finally defeated in 1962. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Separately and independently, two other movements, also called Darul Islam,
arose in Aceh and south Sulawesi. The south Sulawesi movement also spread
into north Maluku. Both were expressions of regional resentment against
the central government, and both took up the call for the establishment
of an Islamic state. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The Aceh movement, led by a man named Daud Beureueh, began in 1953. Neither
it nor the Sulawesi movement was a separatist movement, and both were committed
to the idea of an Indonesian Republic; they just wanted an Islamic one.
In 1960, as the end was drawing near for all of these rebellions, the Aceh
and Sulawesi movements joined forces, at least on paper, and agreed to
form the Federal Islamic Republic of Indonesia. The leadership of Darul
Islam regrouped in 1974, and over the next few years recruited a new wave
of followers. These people did not engage in any violence on Indonesian
soil, however, until May 2000, when some of the men later involved in the
Bali bombings planted explosives in churches in Medan, north Sumatra. The
work was clumsy and unprofessional, and no one in Indonesia or abroad suspected
links to an international network. But Hambali, an Indonesian veteran of
Afghanistan who was already working closely with Al-Qaeda, was the key
figure behind that early effort. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">International awareness of Indonesian involvement in a transnational terrorist
network came much later, after the late 2001 arrests in Singapore and Malaysia
of men found to be members of Jemaah Islamiyah. But that discovery led
to two fundamental misperceptions on the part of many international observers: </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<UL class="style110">
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">That Jemaah Islamiyah was simply the Southeast Asian franchise of Al-Qaeda. </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">That violence perpetrated by Muslim militants in the region had to have
international dimensions. </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
</UL>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Both thoughts were wrong, but so was the widespread denial in Indonesia
that homegrown radicals could have international ties. However, the 1977
group saw themselves as attacking a repressive government at home; the
2000 group saw themselves as part of a global movement to attack the enemies
of Islam. Recruitment of Indonesian mujahidin took place largely through
Darul Islam networks, and particularly from religious study groups that
doubled as Darul Islam cells in central Java and Jakarta. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">The pull factors of the opportunity to take part in an international jihad
and the availability of funding and logistical support coincided with some
important push factors in Indonesia. Political Islam was under severe pressure
from the state, and many Muslims were eager to sign up for the jihad abroad.
Darul Islam members also saw training in Afghanistan as an opportunity
to acquire the military capacity to take on the Indonesian state. The “Afghanistan
experience” proved to be critical to the establishment of Jemaah Islamiyah
and also gave the group a much more international outlook. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">It was in Afghanistan that Jemaah Islamiyah developed bonds with men from
other parts of southeast Asia, because all the southeast Asians trained
together: Thais, Malaysians, Filipinos, Burmese, and even Muslim Cham from
Cambodia. It is where they met fighters from Chechnya, Bosnia, Egypt, and
other parts of the Muslim world. And it was in Afghanistan where future
Jemaah Islamiyah members developed friendships with Abdulrazak Janjalani,
the man who later became the leader of the Abu Sayyaf Group, and with guerrillas
from the MILF. Perhaps more importantly, it was where the Darul Islam recruits
bonded with each other. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Between 1985 and 1995, when fighting among different mujahidin factions
in Afghanistan made continued training impossible, the total number of
Indonesians who went through the Sayyaf military academy was just under
300. Those Afghan alumni came to constitute a powerful base for Jemaah
Islamiyah and became the source of most of its top leaders. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">For most members of Jemaah Islamiyah, however, the fundamental objective
of establishing an Islamic state in Indonesia never changed. It is therefore
critical to understand the Darul Islam roots of Jemaah Islamiyah for a
number of reasons: </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<UL class="style110">
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The men who became part of Jemaah Islamiyah’s central command went to Afghanistan
as Jemaah Islamiyah cadres, not as Jemaah Islamiyah. Many of the strongholds
of Jemaah Islamiyah support today are in areas where sympathy for Darul
Islam was strong in the 1950s and 60s. </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Many of the offshoots and splinter groups of Darul Islam that exist around
Indonesia today—by one count there are 14 different factions—have sent
people to Mindanao and elsewhere to be trained by Jemaah Islamiyah instructors,
or have sent fighters to Ambon (Molucca Island) or Poso (a city in central
Celebes) where they joined Jemaah Islamiyah networks or invited Jemaah
Islamiyah to give training in their own areas. Within Indonesia, the combination
of religious-political motivation and military expertise seen in many of
the bombing operations after 2000 is particularly characteristic of Darul
Islam offshoots, of which Jemaah Islamiyah is one. </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
<LI><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Finally, many practices of Darul Islam were adopted by Jemaah Islamiyah,
including the notion of raising funds for the Islamic struggle through
robbery. Bank robberies, jewelry store robberies, and murders in order
to get the victims’ cash have been justified in this way. </FONT>
</FONT></LI>
</UL>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">But if the basic network for Jemaah Islamiyah developed in the mid-1980s,
why did it only begin to use violence in mid-2000? There are several reasons: </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">First, Jemaah Islamiyah sees itself as a religious organization, not as
a terrorist group. Its main activities from 1993 onward were religious
study and preaching. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Second, there was a systematic effort to build up the organization so that
it had the human and financial resources to focus on its long-term agenda
of establishing an Islamic state. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Third, for many members, the effort to create a mass base through religious
outreach was and continues to be far more important than bombing buildings. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">In 1998, Jemaah Islamiyah began systematically increasing its contacts
with the Taliban and Al-Qaeda by sending some of its senior members, such
as Dr. Azhari, a Malaysian citizen, to Afghanistan for study tours of Taliban
governance and additional military training. This same man helped supply
arms and ammunition to Poso and was briefly arrested after the Marriott
bombing, but released because of lack of evidence. Clearly the political
atmosphere for him had changed between 1989 and 2000. The outbreak of communal
conflict in Ambon in January 1999 provided a major incentive for Jemaah
Islamiyah to undertake acts of terror inside Indonesia. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">There is absolutely no reason to believe that Jemaah Islamiyah had any
hand in the initial violence, but its leaders were able to capitalize on
this as the first real opportunity to put all their training in jihad to
use. Poso, more than anywhere else, proved to be fertile ground for recruiting
suicide bombers. And once suicide bombers are in place, preventing terrorist
acts becomes infinitely more difficult. Jemaah Islamiyah looked at Poso,
and perhaps north Maluku, as the only places in Indonesia where the double
agenda of jihad and dakwah could be served: Wage war, but also preach and
practice pure Islam in a way that will further the aims of establishing
an Islamic state. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">We know that parts of Jemaah Islamiyah continue to function, even with
more than 200 people being detained across southeast Asia for involvement
in or association with the organization. Jemaah Islamiyah’s stronghold
continues to be in central Java, particularly Solo, and some of the top
Jemaah Islamiyah leaders seem still to be based there. The group also has
a strong presence in east Java, Lampung, and central Sulawesi, and has
strong alliances with local partners in west Java and south Sulawesi. This
is an organization whose membership almost certainly numbers in the thousands,
but most are probably focused on dakwah, not bombing plots. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Though their communication has been disrupted, in part because of the sophisticated
technology provided by the Australian government that permits tracing of
mobile phone signals, Jemaah Islamiyah has also become more sophisticated
about the security of hand phones and laptops. The fact that senior leaders
are in prison also does not mean that communication among members has stopped.
Until recently, the prevailing assumption has been that Jemaah Islamiyah
is the only organization with the expertise, international ties, and ideology
to constitute a likely partner in the region for Al-Qaeda or another international
terrorist group. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">However, there are two possibly flawed elements in this assumption: a)Jemaah
Islamiyah as an institution is inclined to follow Al-Qaeda’s lead; b) Jemaah
Islamiyah is the most dangerous group around. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Rather, the group is much more focused on building up military capacity
and creating a mass base through religious indoctrination to support what
would effectively be an Islamic revolution in the country when the time
is right— and the members of this faction appear to have a very long time
frame. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The question is whether new leaders will emerge through the dakwah process.
Members are now being recruited who will be more inclined to the Al-Qaeda
view of the world. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">That prospect could be particularly lethal if the kind of personal ties
to other radical jihads around the world that the Afghanistan training
provided in the late 1980s and 1990s are recreated. Preventing a similar
international training center from developing must be a top priority. However,
it could be precisely the lack of lengthy training, the impetus to use
the results of that training immediately, and the attraction of martyrdom
that could make men from some of the smaller groups more dangerous in the
long run than Jemaah Islamiyah. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="CENTER">
<FONT FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style109"><B>CONCLUDING REMARKS</B></span></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110">
<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">During his exile, Khomeini coordinated an upsurge of opposition, first
from Iraq and then from France, after demanding the Shah’s abdication.
On April 1, 1979, after a landslide victory in a national referendum, Khomeini
declared an Islamic Republic, subsequently invested with a new constitution
reflecting his ideals of Islamic government. Fundamentalist measures followed
and revolutionary committees patrolled the streets enforcing Islamic codes
of behavior and dress. Efforts were made to suppress Western influence,
and many of the Western-educated elite fled the country. The early years
of the revolutionary government were marked by the virtual elimination
of political opposition and the consolidation and regularization of revolutionary
organizations. All of this triggered an Islamic “awakening” worldwide and
influenced some non-Shiite Islamic movements. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><font color="#000000" face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">T</font><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">he average age of Palestine suicide bombers is the early twenties. Almost
all are unmarried and expressed religious beliefs before recruitment (but
no more than did the general population). They apparently span their population’s
normal distribution in terms of education, socioeconomic status, and personality
type (introvert vs. extrovert). They all are Palestinian or from the Middle
East. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">Jemaah Islamiyah was created on January 1, 1993, as a religious organization,
not as a terrorist group. Its main activities from 1993 onward have been
religious study and preaching. There was a systematic effort to build up
the organization so that it had the human and financial resources to focus
on its long-term agenda of establishing an Islamic state in Indonesia.
The effort to create a mass base through religious outreach was and continues
to be far more important than bombing buildings. Indonesians began going
to the Pakistan-Afghanistan border for military training in 1985 and some
of the first graduates of that training became the leaders of what later
came to be known as Jemaah Islamiyah. Beginning in 1988, Jemaah Islamiyah
began systematically increasing its contacts with the Taliban and Al-Qaeda
by sending some of its senior members to Afghanistan for study tours of
Taliban governance and additional military training. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">According to the World Bank Report, in the year 2002 the world population
was 6.2 billion, with a Muslim population of 1.2 billion. Around 245 million,
or 20% of the world’s Moslems, live in the Middle East and North Africa.
The majority (80%) of Moslems live in developing, low-income countries,
with an average GNP/Capita ($430 USD), or 19.3% of the average GNP/Capita
($2,230 USD) of the Middle East and North African countries, and only 13.8%
of the average GNP/Capita ($3,107 USD) of the Middle East and North African
Arabs countries. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The above-mentioned terrorist acts were carried out directly or indirectly
by people coming from the North African and Middle East Islamic Sunnite
Society, with an average GNP/Capita seven times higher than the majority
(80%) of the Islamic people living in the poor developing countries of
the world. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The “Palestine Case” is based on disputes between Palestine and Israel
over possession of a contested homeland. The double standard used by some
countries and the U.S. in evaluating and judging the confrontations and
clashes in favor of Israel has embarrassed many countries and people in
the world, including Islamic people. The Palestine suicide bombings, therefore,
should not be considered as an Islamic act of confrontation or war but
more as a reaction to the injustice act in solving the “Palestine Problem.” The United States and its allies should change their behavior by directly
addressing and lessening their sentiments of grievance and humiliation.
The Palestinian suicide bombings are similar to the kamikaze bombings carried
out by the Japanese during the Second World War as a last and hopeless
attempt to defend itself against an economically and militarily superior
enemy. The use of culture, beliefs, and religion (Islam) are the means
for preparing, programming, systematically brainwashing, and indoctrinating
suicide bombers to take part in military attacks against the enemy. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
<FONT COLOR="#000000">The tragedy of September 11 and the Al-Qaeda terrorist acts that took place
before and after that time are based on a vision of Osama bin Laden and
the people in the visible and invisible network of Al-Qaeda. The vision
is to coordinate, control, and command the Islamic people worldwide through
a “global caliphate,” and perhaps later through a Western-inspired system
of nation-states. The awakening of the Islamic people after the success
of the Iranian Islamic revolution, the economic success derived from the
oil boom in the Middle Eastern countries, and the success of the Afghanistan
war against the Russians, in which Islamic fighters, including the Taliban,
were successfully involved, encourage the people in the Al-Qaeda network
to create their global caliphate. Following the Afghanistan war, the fall
of the Russian Communist hegemony, the change from a bipolar to a unipolar
world, and the behavior of the Superpower toward Palestine and the Middle
Eastern problem nurse an irrational hatred toward the U.S. The suicide
bombings carried out by the Al-Qaeda network are similar to the “Assassin
network” mentioned earlier. The use of culture, beliefs, and religion (Islam)
are the means for preparing, programming, systematically brainwashing,
and indoctrinating suicide bombers. Al-Qaeda has never gained legitimacy
in any Islamic society or country for implementing their vision and killing
innocent people. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><FONT COLOR="#000000">My final conclusion is that radicalism and terrorism have nothing to do
with the Islamic people of the world, almost ninety percent of whom are
taking part in a jihad, or holy war, against ignorance, injustice, and
poverty. </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT"> <FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">References:
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> John Kelsay: THE JUST WAR DEBATE, ISLAMIC STYLE
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Scott Atran: GENESIS AND FUTURE OF SUICIDE TERRORISM
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
Navid Kermani: ROOTS OF TERROR: SUICIDE, MARTYRDOM, SELF-REDEMPTION AND
ISLAM<FONT COLOR="#000000"> </FONT>
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT"><span class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Abdal Hakim Murad (British convert to Islam): RECAPTURING ISLAM FROM TERRORIST </FONT></span><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" SIZE="3" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
</FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT">
<FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><span class="style110">Haim Malka: MUST INNOCENTS DIE? THE ISLAMIC DEBATE OVER SUICIDE ATTACKS
</span></FONT></P>
<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">
Alan Caruba: JIHAD, SUICIDE, MURDER & LIES<FONT COLOR="#000000"> </FONT>
</FONT></P>
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Nilüfer Göle: CLOSE ENCOUNTERS: ISLAM, MODERNITY AND VIOLENCE
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Allamah Abu al-A’la Mawadudi: HUMAN RIGHTS IN ISLAM
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Sidney Jones: “TERRORISM IN ASIA: THE CASE OF JEMAAH ISLAMIYAH”
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<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Greg Barton: MAKING SENSE OF JEMAAH ISLAMIYAH TERRORISM
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<P ALIGN="LEFT" class="style110"><FONT COLOR="#1f1a17" FACE="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> Reuven Paz: THE SAUDI FATWA AGAINST SUICIDE TERRORISM
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Alfred Stepan: DEMOCRATIC DIVIDE IN THE MUSLIM WORLD<FONT COLOR="#000000"> </FONT>
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