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<p><font size="2" face="arial">Synthesizers have become indispensable
                in many of today&#146;s advanced measurement and production systems,
                as well as in stand-alone uses. Typical applications range from
                ATE and NMR medical imaging to satellite earth station oscillators,
                from magnetic storage media testing to crystal production, from mode-locking
                of lasers to ECM. Precision timing, radar simulations, Doppler systems,
                all make use of synthesizers. </font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">Frequency synthesizers are basically
                variable radio-frequency generators which are very accurately
                and quickly settable and possess high stability. Within a specified
                frequency range they can be programmed either manually or remotely
                to practically any output frequency. This output frequency is
                as accurate and as stable as a built-in frequency standard, usually
                a crystal oscillator, or as accurate and stable as an external
                precision standard which may be connected to the synthesizer
                in lieu of its own standard. Where very high stabilities are
                desired, atomic or molecular standards are often used. </font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">Most commercial frequency synthesizers
                use a decimal read-out or indicator system. The least significant
                step or digit determines resolution, how closely the synthesizer
                can be set to any arbitrary frequency. Resolution ranges from
                megahertzs to microhertzs, depending on use; some synthesizers
                offer a choice of resolution to match capability (and price)
                to users&#146; need. (Although read-out or indication of setting
                is normally decimal, remote control frequency setting may use
                other coding.)</font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">The ideal of a pure frequency, a single
                spectral line, is not attained in practical synthesizers. All
                produce unwanted frequencies, called spurious outputs, and they
                also have, like any oscillator, harmonics. While harmonics are
                at least one octave removed and thus not often troublesome, the
                suppression of other unwanted frequencies is a major challenge
                of synthesizer design; units differ widely in this respect, and
                this is of major impact regarding cost. The same is true of the
                very close-in noise around the carrier that constitutes unwanted
                phase-modulation. These perturbations are variously called broadband
                phase noise, spectral density distribution of phase noise, residual
                FM, and short term fractional frequency deviation. </font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">Today&#146;s synthesizers use three
                technologies, singly or in combination, to generate an output
                frequency from a reference standard: direct analog, indirect,
                and direct digital.</font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">Direct analog synthesis makes use
                of a limited number of auxiliary or standard frequencies which
                are derived from the reference. The output band is covered solely
                by arithmetic operations on these auxiliary frequencies, using
                fixed-tuned filters, RF switches, mixers, multipliers and dividers.
                The &quot;mix-and-divide&quot; direct synthesis approach permits
                the use of many identical modules, producing arbitrarily fine
                resolution and low spurious output. </font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">Indirect synthesis uses phase-locked
                loops to produce an output frequency. This approach may take
                various forms: divide-by-n for one or more digits, fractional-n
                with multi-digit capability, and mix-and-divide with loops embedded.
                In each case, the loop is governed by some derivative of the
                frequency standard. Again, the mix-and-divide approach permits
                the use of many identical modules. </font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">Direct digital synthesis makes use
                of digital technology. Using adder circuitry, phase is accumulated
                at a rate dependent on the frequency selected. Phase value is
                then used to address a PROM, which stores discrete values of
                the sine function. A D/A converts the digital output of the PROM
                to a sine wave which is low-pass filtered to remove the clock
                frequency, aliases and D/A glitches. The theoretical maximum
                output frequency obtainable is one-half the clock frequency,
                although practical filtering considerations limit the output
                frequency to less than 45% of the clock. </font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">PTS synthesizers use direct analog
                and direct digital technologies. Indirect schemes, although cost-effective
                for multi-digit high resolution, are not used because the switching
                speed demanded for PTS synthesizers (&micro;seconds) is not attainable.
                The most significant digits down to 1 MHz are produced by direct
                analog synthesis. When switching speed and signal purity are
                considered, there is no better approach. Direct digital synthesis
                is faster switching, but at this time the technology does not
                provide the low level of spurious outputs demanded by sophisticated
                applications at VHF/UHF frequencies. </font></p>
            <p><font size="2" face="arial">For the digits from 100 KHz down to
                0.1 Hz, PTS offers a choice of repetitive mix-and-divide modules
                or direct digital synthesis. The direct analog technology permits
                a close match to customer resolution requirements, while direct
                digital synthesis provides fast, phase-continuous switching and
                allows digital phase modulation. </font></p>
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