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<H1>Yamda • <span style="font-family: 'VerdurianNormal'">Yamda</span></a></h1>
<br/><a href="#Intro"><b>Introduction</b> </a> <i>
- <a href="#Intro">Prefatory</a>
- <a href="#People">The people</a>
- <a href="#Dialects">The dialects</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Sounds"><b>Sounds</b> </a> <i>
- <a href="#SCA">Dialect correspondences</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Expressions"><b>Expressions</b> </a> <i>
- <a href="#Adjective">Adjective</a>
- <a href="#Numbers">Numbers</a>
- <a href="#Pointers">Demonstratives</a>
- <a href="#Noun">The Noun</a>
- <a href="#Trustee">Pronouns</a>
- <a href="#Relations">Case</a>
- <a href="#Nominal">Copula</a>
- <a href="#Verb">Verb</a>
- <a href="#Universal">Universal Passive</a>
- <a href="#VerbsPronouns">with pronouns</a>
- <a href="#Imperative">Imperative</a>
- <a href="#Nominalizations">Nominalizations</a>
- <a href="#Adverb">Adverb</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Sentence"><b>Sentences</b></a> <i>
- <a href="#Negatives">Negatives</a>
- <a href="#Questions">Questions</a>
- <a href="#Relative">Relative clauses</a>
- <a href="#Helping">Auxiliaries</a>
- <a href="#Sentential">Sentential objects</a>
- <a href="#Conditionals">Conditionals</a>
- <a href="#Causatives">Causatives</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Example"><b>Example</b> - <i> A Yamda tale</i></a>
<br/><a href="#Comparative"><b>Comparative summary</b></a>
<br/><a href="#Lexicon"><b>Lexicon</b></a>
<h2><a name="Intro">An Introduction to the Speech of the Indigenes of Yamda</a></h2>
<span style="color:#B08000;font-size:18px;"><i>Perecrivel soan Sfahen soië Nesen i Yamda</i>
— By Renár Bendazonei Foriy </span> <br/>
<center><img src="illo/Tellinor-3480.png"></center>
<blockquote>
<p><red>Yamda is the language of the region of the same name in Téllinor. It belongs to the Yamda-Trêng family which includes most of greater Téllinor and southern Angenvari.</red>
<p><red>This is the earliest presentation of Yamda grammar in Eretald, pubished in 3409. I’ve provided Foriy’s sketch for its historical interest; also because it’s a record of the language as it was before colonization. Modern Yamda has been thoroughly changed by borrowing from Verdurian, Kebreni, and Xurnese, which now provide over 30% of the lexicon, and have significantly changed its syntax.</red>
<p><red>No better grammar existed in 3480: the University did not produce one till Kubah Orgaric’s of 3491. To learn Yamda before then, you read Foriy, supplemented by one or more dictionaries, and the Navy’s Guide to the Speech of Yamda, which gave useful lists of common expressions and covered a few things Foriy didn’t.</red>
<p><red>I’ve corrected Foriy’s transliterations to match later scholarly practice, consistently used boldface for Yamda, and added explanatory notes in red. I have also supplied glosses for his sample sentences. I have retained his involved diction and quirky capitalization, a style which was characteristic of the 3300s (but not universal). </red>
<p><red>Needless to say, I do not endorse Foriy’s view of the Téllinorese. But I should point out that he was by no means the worst; he was a friend to many Téllinorese and married one, was respected as a fair administrator, and was interested in Téllinorese culture. But few of the settlers could get past a reflexive attitude of Eretaldan cultural superiority, and as Foriy himself complains, most were poor exemplars of Verdurian civilization.</red>
<p><red>—M.R.</red>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Intro">Prefatory Remarks</a></h3>
In the year of the South 3347, under king Ažerey 2e, the land of Téllinor was added to the kingdom of Verduria. It was the will of the Fates that this happened when I served the King in the Royal Navy as a young man, and thus I served in the war and then as personal aide to the first Governor, Captain Ribelgo Lotom, of honored memory.
<p>I acquired a competence in the tongue of the Indigenes. Governor Lotom encouraged me to make my notes available, both for the smooth administration of Government, and to meet the curiosity of Scholarship, and he kindly arranged for their Publication in Verduria-city. This has led to a wholly unexpected correspondence with Scholars, colonial Officers, and Merchants, asking about every point of this previously unknown Tongue.
<p>It beame evident that only a fuller Presentation could assuage the curiosity of the public, and thus, upon my retirement, I have finally provided such in this small Book, retaining, however, full consciousness of its many Shortcomings. There is no room to name all those that have sent inquiries, nor those who have generously shared their own understanding with me, but I must especially mention Lieutenant Osör Ružeon, who has published his own notes on the Bhrumese dialect, and urged me to contribute my grain of sand to the ever-growing heap which is Verdurian Science.
<h3><a name="People">The people of the Colony</a></h3>
The inhabitants of Téllinor are a savage race, very pale in color, with hair that is neither straight nor curly, but closely crimped like a brush. They have no writing, no machinery, no mills, no seagoing ships, no cannons, and only primitive metallurgy. They are divided into tribes led by Chiefs, who in wartime answer to a King, but they are fickle in their allegiances and prone to disputes and war.
<p>They worship multiple savage gods or <b>faga</b>, of which I have written in another Book. Their rituals are marked by a striking superabundance of Passion, which they explain as a god or spirit taking over their Body and Mind. We are told that our own primitive ancestors were so possessed by <i>Fantit</i>. The purpose is to seek guidance or healing, though the Feverishness induced by alcohol, exertion, and wild Music may lead instead to immorality or mere Stupor.
<p>They are great traders, taking their Boats across the country to distribute the products of the land; and a Verdurian who wishes to do business in the country will find ready hands to distribute them to the farther tribes. They will do so responsibly and loyally so long as they are not denied their pay. The Verdurian must remember that to a native, the mark of a superior man is his Generosity, and the surest path to the loss of their respect is a perception of Miserliness.
<p>They are dissolute in morals, and Verdurians who go there start to follow them in their feasts and revels, taking up concubines and even following the native gods. For every enterprising Verdurian Man who makes his fortune in the colony, there are half a dozen who are ruined morally and financially. For this reason Governor Lotom required that no Seaman be posted in the colony for a period of more than two years.
<p>In the absence of Verdurian women, the Téllinorese women are comely, and rather than the path of dissolution, many a Verdurian has taken one as Wife. Though he will have nothing to complain of in domestic Happiness, such a marriage should not be taken lightly, as to the people a marriage is a uniting of Clans (<b>predaga</b>). The husband must be prepared to offer gifts to the family, not only before the wedding but on a continuing basis, and to favor the Clan in business. If this is done to their satisfaction, however, the Clan will be of great use in Business, and the Verdurian will himself be considered by the natives as well-established and trustworthy. He who consorts with concubines, however, will be as damaged in his Reputation as in his Virtue.
<h3><a name="Dialects">The dialects</a></h3>
The Téllinorese language is spoken upriver as far as explorers have penetrated, and along the coasts both north and south of Topêro. However, the farther one ventures from the capital, the stranger is the speech. A very different Language is found in the south, in Žmero.
<p>The dialect spoken in the colony is called by the indigenes <b>Yamda</b>, after themselves, “The People.” Just to the south is the nation of Trêng; along the river to the east is Bhrum; and on the northern coast is Östi.
<p>Even within the Yamda nation there are variations, but the speech of <b>Topêro</b>, which I have documented in this book, will be understood. With some adjustments the speech of Trêng and Bhrum may be understood, and I have provided helpful Notes for this task. The indigenes of these nations will be more apt to understand a Verdurian speaking the dialect of Topêro, than will he be able to understand their dialects.
<p>Many of the indigenes have learned the Verdurian language; but I must counsel against a simple reliance on this fact. Only a small minority know our language, which is greatly limiting to one’s Connections and Knowledge. Hiring a servant, or even doing business in the markets, will be enormously facilitated by an understanding of native speech; nor is it prudent for an officer or a businessman to undertake their Professions, unable to understand what the indigenes are saying among themselves. If a person cannot learn the language he must absolutely have at hand some reliable person who does.
<h2><a name="Sounds">The sounds of Yamda</a></h2>
The Yamda tongue was never written, but now the Caďinor alphabet is used to commit it to paper. Not all the letters of our alphabet are used, and some have a different Signification.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <tt>U</tt></td> <td> <tt> A</tt> </td> <td> <tt> O</tt> </td> <td> <tt> E</tt> </td> <td> <tt> C</tt> </td> <td> <tt> Y</tt> </td> <td> <tt> K</tt> </td> <td> <tt> Ř </tt> </td> <td> <tt> P</tt> </td> <td> <tt> C</tt> </td> <td> <tt> B</tt> </td> <td> <tt> G</tt> </td> <td> <tt> D</tt> </td> <td> <tt> S</tt> </td> </tr><tr> <td> u</td> <td> a</td> <td> o</td> <td> e</td> <td> i</td> <td> y</td> <td> k</td> <td> ř </td> <td> p</td> <td> c</td> <td> b</td> <td> g</td> <td> d</td> <td> s</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> ɯ</td> <td> a</td> <td> ɤ</td> <td> e</td> <td> i</td> <td> j</td> <td> —</td> <td> —</td> <td> p</td> <td> k</td> <td> b</td> <td> g</td> <td> d</td> <td> s</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <tt>Š</tt> </td> <td> <tt> Z</tt> </td> <td> <tt> Č </tt> </td> <td> <tt> T</tt> </td> <td> <tt> ƒ</tt> </td> <td> <tt> R</tt> </td> <td> <tt> H</tt> </td> <td> <tt> L</tt> </td> <td> <tt> M</tt> </td> <td> <tt> F</tt> </td> <td> <tt> N</tt> </td> <td> <tt> V</tt> </td> <td> <tt> Ž </tt> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> š </td> <td> z</td> <td> č </td> <td> t</td> <td> ď </td> <td> r</td> <td> h</td> <td> l</td> <td> m</td> <td> f</td> <td> n</td> <td> v</td> <td> j</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> ʃ</td> <td> z</td> <td> —</td> <td> t</td> <td> —</td> <td> r</td> <td> h</td> <td> l</td> <td> m</td> <td> f</td> <td> n</td> <td> v</td> <td> dʒ</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Letters not used in native words are <tt>K Ř Č Ď</tt> <b>k ř č ď</b>. As is natural, these are used to record Verdurian words.
<p>The letter <tt>Ž</tt> <b>ž</b> is articulated more harshly than ours, exactly like the <tt>J</tt> <i>j</i> of Flaidish. <red>[That is, it’s dʒ; the modern spelling is in fact <tt>J</tt>.] </red>
<p>The letter <tt>H</tt> <b>h</b> must be pronounced as an exhalation of breath, as it is heard when spoken by the better classes in Žésifo.
<p>Most difficult for Verdurian speakers is a sound written <tt>G</tt> or <tt>K</tt> or <tt>GN</tt> <b>g k gn</b>, which is a weak form of <b>n</b> wherein the tongue takes the position of <b>c</b> or <b>g</b>. Though no civilized speech has it, it can be found in the tongues of Dhekhnam and Obenzaya. <red>[This is ŋ. The University grammar writes <tt>GN</tt> <b>gn</b>, which I have adapted as <b>ng</b>.]</red>
<p>Almost every Sound may be followed by a <tt>Y</tt> <b>y</b>, which softens and feminizes it, much as in the Verdurian words <i>le > lë</i>.
<p>As in Barakhinei speech, there are two ways to pronounce <b>e</b> and <b>o</b>, one pronounced strongly, with the tongue higher in the mouth, the other more weakly. The latter sounds are here written <tt>Ê Ô</tt> ê ô. <red>[ɛ ɔ] </red>
<p>I counsel asking a native to pronounce <b>ne</b> ‘I’ and <b>nê</b> ‘chicken’, and imitating his pronunication until he can reliably report which word you are uttering. A benefit of this Experiment will be that you will not be subject to native Derision if you refer to yourself as <b>nê</b>.
<p><red>[Note: I’ve transliterated <tt>C</tt> as <b>k</b>, which makes more sense for terrestrials. Modern linguists report that the back vowels <b>u o</b> are unrounded [ɯ ɤ]; either Foriy did not notice, or despaired of imparting the pronunciation to ordinary Verdurians.
]</red>
<p>Stress is regularly placed on the Penult, the next to last syllable. If a Verdurian word is not so stressed, the native cannot pronounce it correctly; thus <i>šerë</i> ‘beer’ becomes <b>širya</b>.
<h3><a name="SCA">Dialect correspondences</a></h3>
Those who have need to travel upriver, are well advised to learn the local Dialect or take assistants who know it well. However, very often the dialectal form of a word may be predicted according to these common Patterns…
<p><red>[Foriy’s table is near-useless, so I’ve instead provided the SCA<sup>2</sup> files for Yamda, Trêng, and Bhrumese. For the Proto-Yamda-Trêng forms see the lexicon.]</red>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr>
<td>SCA<sup>2</sup> CATEGORIES</td>
<td>GEN INPUTS</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
V=aeiouêôæəüö <br/>
C=ptkbdgylrhwnŋmčjžšɦȟḇḏḡ <br/>
B=ouô <br/>
O=oe <br/>
Ô=ôê <br/>
U=uoa <br/>
Y=üöæ <br/>
E=eiæ <br/>
T=ptkčš <br/>
D=bdgjž <br/>
H=ḇḏḡjž <br/>
N=nŋm <br/>
bh|ḇ <br/>
dh|ḏ <br/>
gh|ḡ <br/>
</td>
<td>
V=aeoiu <br/>
C=ptknlrbmdgyčɦhŋmj <br/>
K=nptlkhbdgɦrjwm <br/>
N=nŋ <br/>
S=rɦhtkpsm <br/>
CV <br/>
CyV <br/>
CrV <br/>
CVN <br/>
CVS
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>YAMDA</td>
<td>TRÊNG</td>
<td>BHRUMESE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
ɦy/v/#_
gy/h/_ <br/>
j//_y <br/>
ɦ/v/#_B <br/>
ɦ/f/#_ <br/>
ɦ/f/_# <br/>
ɦ/g/V_V <br/>
č/š/_ <br/>
O/Ô/_CC <br/>
O/Ô/_C# <br/>
ly/y/V_V <br/>
my/w/V_V <br/>
n//V_C <br/>
h//_# <br/>
t//V_C <br/>
tr/j/_ <br/>
o/ô/_Co <br/>
</td>
<td>
p/m/_y <br/>
ny/y/#_ <br/>
jy/ž/_ <br/>
ly/ž/_ <br/>
ry/w/_ <br/>
T/D/_y <br/>
l//V_V <br/>
l//V_# <br/>
O/Ô/_CC <br/>
O/Ô/_C# <br/>
g/gy/_e <br/>
g/gy/_i <br/>
a/e/_CB <br/>
a/e/_CCB <br/>
r/d/V_V <br/>
r/y/č_V <br/>
č/š/#_ <br/>
č/š/_# <br/>
nd/ŋ/_ <br/>
r//V_C <br/>
hy/š/_ <br/>
s/š/_C <br/>
s/š/_# <br/>
p/f/_# <br/>
k/ȟ/_# <br/>
j/ž/_# <br/>
a/ai/_N <br/>
e/i/_N <br/>
ô/u/_N <br/>
</td>
<td>
ty/č/_ <br/>
U/Y/Ty_ <br/>
U/Y/Dy_ <br/>
U/Y/_CE <br/>
T/H/#_V <br/>
T/H/#_r <br/>
D/T/#_V <br/>
y//_Y <br/>
ry/ly/_ <br/>
i//Cr_ <br/>
a/æ/_N <br/>
a/æ/_č <br/>
o/ə/_ŋ <br/>
a/ə/VC(C)_# <br/>
o/ə/VC(C)_# <br/>
e//_# <br/>
e/a/_r <br/>
m/ḇ/V_V <br/>
D/H/V_V <br/>
č/ž/V_V <br/>
n//E_ <br/>
eh/a/_# <br/>
oh/o/_# <br/>
ye/i/j_ <br/>
</td> <br/>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
It is well to remember that the Meaning of a word may differ in the dialects. More than one Verdurian has been shamed to learn, or should have been shamed if he knew, that the innocuous word <b>ryala</b> ‘woman’ is taken by the Bhrumese to mean a woman who sells her virtue. But other less striking confusions are very common: <b>byudo</b> means to leave or abandon, but in Bhrumese, to complete.
<h2><a name="Expressions">The Expressions</a></h2>
Grammar divides words as follows:
<ol>
<li> those which express Quality (adjectives)
<li> that name Objects (nouns, pronouns)
<li> that express Relation (prepositions, conjunctions, numbers)
<li> that express States (static verbs)
<li> that express Actions (active verbs), and
<li> which express Manner (adverbs).
</ol>
Though I have followed this Model as far as is possible, I must advise that the Yamda language is not as sophisticated and civilized as Caďinor, and does not respect this division. Every word or Root in Yamda may appear as any one of these Expressions. We are familiar with adjectives acting as nouns, but in Yamda it is also the case that nouns may be used as verbs, and verbs as nouns.
<p>As a simple example, let us take <b>byera</b>. The word means ‘to fish’ <i>ihtüan</i> and also ‘fishing’ <i>ihtüát</i>. Alone, it has either meaning; but with noun inflections it is a noun, and with verb inflections it is a verb. Thus <b>byeraga</b> ‘fishing expeditions’ or <b>ôtabyera</b> ‘after fishing’ act as Nouns; <b>byerat</b> ‘he fished’ or <b>byerayên</b> ‘I am fishing’, as Verbs.
<p>To be more precise, it is the last suffix which determines the type of Expression.
<p>Now let us consider two sentences using <b>byera</b> along with <b>ryala</b> ‘young woman’.
<blockquote> <tt> Byerayêt ng ryala.</tt> <br/>
<b> Byerayêt ng ryala.</b> <br/>
fish-impfv-3s nom maiden<br/>
<i> The young woman is fishing.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ryalayêt ng byera.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ryalayêt ng byera.</b> <br/>
maiden-impfv-3s nom fishing<br/>
<i> The one fishing is a young woman.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<p>The verbal suffixes <b>yê-t</b> mark their targets as Verbs, or we could say, turn them definitively into Verbs; but these suffixes may be applied indifferently to <b>byera</b> or to <b>ryala</b>. In a similar way the case marker <b>ng</b> signals that the following word, either <b>byera</b> or <b>ryala</b>, is used as a Noun. Doing some violence to our own Language, we might say that the native understanding of the second sentence is ‘Someone is young-woman-ing, and there is fish.’
<h3><a name="Adjective">The Adjective</a></h3>
The Adjective is not difficult, as it has no Agreement; it may be placed before or after its noun: <b>jang širya</b> or <b>širya jang</b> ‘strong beer’; <b>dôn vena</b> or <b>vena dôn</b> ‘large house’.
<p>An adjective can be used as a Noun, referring to things or persons of that Quality, but it is preferable then to give it a gendered or plural Noun inflection: <b>šudo</b> ‘poor’ thus becomes <b>šudoga</b> ‘the poor’ or <b>šudoto</b> ‘a poor man’.
<p>The meaning is intensified by repetition: <b>šudošudo</b> ‘extremely poor’, <b>dôndôn</b> ‘extremely large’. This may be moderated by repeating only the first syllable: <b>šušudo</b> ‘very poor’, <b>dôdôn</b> ‘very large.’
<p>The diminutive -<b>y(e)</b> will soften the meaning: <b>šudoy</b> ‘somewhat poor’, <b>dônye</b> ‘somewhat large.’
<p>The suffix -<b>nye</b> is used much like our Genitive of Composition, showing what something is made of, or filled with: <b>yana</b> ‘sand’, <b>yananye</b> ‘sandy’; <b>gôro</b> ‘rock’, <b>gôronye</b> ‘rocky’.
<p>The suffix <b>da</b> turns an adjective into an abstract Quality; thus <b>jangda</b> ‘strength’, <b>dônda</b> ‘largeness.’
<p>To compare two persons or objects, one says something like this:
<blockquote> <tt> Yês is Kyaja, nêrt is Jola.</tt> <br/>
<b> Yês is Kyaja, nêrt is Jola.</b> <br/>
tall trigger Kyaja / short trigger Jola<br/>
<i> Kyaja is tall, Jola is short.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<p>That is to say, this conveys the meaning Kyaja is taller than Jola.
<h3><a name="Numbers">Numbers</a></h3>
Many Authorities place the Numbers in the class of Relations, but I have considered them a form of Adjective, as they act precisely like these. The Yamda count by fives:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> šrija</b> </td> <td> one</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyuli</b> </td> <td> two</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tyaša</b> </td> <td> three</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fima</b> </td> <td> four</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vôro</b> </td> <td> five</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Six to nine are <b>vôro šrija, vôro pyuli, vôro tyaša, vôro fima</b>. Alternatively, <b>vôro pan šrija</b> ‘five with one’, and so on.
<p>The word for ten is <b>vôraro</b> which is the dual of ‘five’; thus ‘two fives.’ One occasionally hears <b>tyašaša</b> for six, <b>fimama</b> for eight.
<p>Multiples of five are <b>pyuli vôroga</b> 15, <b>tyaša vôroga</b> 20, <b>hača</b> 25. With these the unit digits are most often added with <b>pan</b>, thus <b>tyaša vôroga pan fima</b> 24.
<p>It should now be possible to interpret <b>pyuli hačaga pan vôraro pan tyaša</b> ‘two 25 with 10 with 3’, that is, 63. The process may then continue with <b>têyu</b> 125.
<p>A number may precede or follow a noun: <b>pyuli ryala</b> or <b>ryala pyuli</b> ‘two young women.’ When a number is given, the noun need not take a dual or plural suffix, though it is not incorrect to use one.
<p>As we shall see below, pairs of objects are named using the Dual, thus <b>pyuli</b> is not often needed. We would normally say <b>ryalala</b> ‘a pair of young women’. One would use <b>pyuli</b> if counting, or if asked particularly about quantity.
<p>It is a rare Verdurian who masters the native counting system; contrariwise, it is increasingly common for natives to use the Verdurian numbers even in Yamda, with some Accommodation to native speech habits: <b>an, vun, vin, par, pan, sês, êp, žôk, nêv, dêk</b>.
<p>There are no words designated as Ordinals; rather a construction is used such as
<blockquote> <tt> šrija ôta dêyaga</tt> <br/>
<b> šrija ôta dêyaga</b> <br/>
one from woman-pl<br/>
<i> one of women, that is, the first woman</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Pointers">Pointers</a></h3>
A special kind of adjective is the Pointer <red>[<i>kansilî</i>, Demonstrative]</red>. Their name is apt, for they point to a particular instance of a thing. They are divided in three not two in Yamda: near distance, medium, and far.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> im</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> this near</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngêt</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> that, not far</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šô</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> that far</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
If the Verdurian hesitates between <b>ngêt</b> and <b>šô</b>, it is usually safe to choose the first, which is incorrect only if the indicated Object is distant from both speaker and listener.
<p>As there is no possessive adjective, when contrasted <b>im</b> and <b>ngêt</b> may have the implication ‘mine’ versus ‘yours.’ E.g. <b>Dês ang im vena</b> “Come into my house.”
<p>To these may be applied the nominal suffixes <b>to</b> for a human, <b>soy</b> for an object. The combinations are however somewhat modified in Sound.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> into</b> </td> <td> <b>insoy</b></td> <td> this man / thing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngêto</b> </td> <td> <b>ngêtoy</b></td> <td> that man / thing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šô</b> </td> <td> <b>šôsoy</b></td> <td> yonder man / thing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
For completeness I give the pointers relating to Time and Space, though they are sometimes considered trustee nouns. In Time there are only two divisions.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> ir</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> here</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngil</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> there, not far</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nad</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> there, distant</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> myaga</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> now, at this time</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tyun</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> then, at that time</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<h3><a name="Noun">The Noun</a></h3>
The Noun is only sparsely Inflected in Yamda.
<p>The Dual is formed by repeating the last syllable. If the noun ends in a consonant, repeat the syllable instead.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b>baje</b> egg</td> <td> <b>bajeje</b> two eggs</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>kema</b> hand</td> <td> <b>kemama</b> two hands</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>dêya</b> woman</td> <td> <b>dêyaya</b> two women</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>rin</b> hour</td> <td> <b>ririn</b> two hours</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>far</b> land</td> <td> <b>fafar</b> two lands</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>vôro</b> five</td> <td> <b>vôraro</b> ten</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>ne</b> I</td> <td> <b>nene</b> thou and I</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The Plural is formed in two ways. The first and most general is via the suffix <b>ga</b>, or after a final consonant besides <b>n</b>, -<b>eg</b>.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b>fa</b> god</td> <td> <b>faga</b> gods</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>far</b> land</td> <td> <b>fareg</b> lands</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>nê</b> chicken</td> <td> <b>nêga</b> chickens</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>yam</b> human</td> <td> <b>byameg</b> people, humans</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The second form is formed with the suffix <b>da</b>, and forces a consideration of the Referent as a unity or collective. Compare with the above table the meanings below:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b>fa</b> god</td> <td> <b>fada</b> the pantheon, divinity</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>far</b> land</td> <td> <b>farda</b> the territory of the king</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>nê</b> chicken</td> <td> <b>nêda</b> poultry, the fowls owned by one man</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>yam</b> human</td> <td> <b>yamda</b> the Yamda people</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Nouns are not inflected by Case, but Case is indicated using a separate particle, which will be described under Relations.
<p>More specific Reference may be attained by the use of certain Suffixes:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> to</b> </td> <td> male </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> la</b> </td> <td> female </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> y</b> </td> <td> diminutive (after a consonant, -<b>ye</b>)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> soy</b> </td> <td> an associated object</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vin</b> </td> <td> place where an activity is done (after a consonant, <b>in</b>)</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The entire noun may be repeated, with the Signification, many or all of these things:
<blockquote> <tt> Myal kreba kreba ye pargin.</tt> <br/>
<b> Myal kreba kreba ye pargin.</b> <br/>
exist ship ship at dock<br/>
<i> At the dock are ships upon ships.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Trustee">Trustee Nouns</a></h3>
An important subclass is Trustee Nouns <red>[pronouns]</red>, which are generalized words taking the place of nouns, used for Brevity or to refer to the participants in the conversation.
<p>The most common trustee nouns are these;
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> meaning</td> <td> basic</td> <td> obj</td> <td> benef</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> I</td> <td> <b> ne</b> </td> <td> <b> êm</b> </td> <td> <b> vên</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> you (singular)</td> <td> <b> pôr</b> </td> <td> <b> byo</b> </td> <td> <b> gô</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> you and I</td> <td> <b> ngo</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> he or she</td> <td> <b> dye</b> </td> <td> <b> êt</b> </td> <td> <b> re</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> he</td> <td> <b> dyet</b> </td> <td> <b> êt</b> </td> <td> <b> re </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> she</td> <td> <b> dyel</b> </td> <td> <b> êl</b> </td> <td> <b> re</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> we</td> <td> <b> kune </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> you (plural)</td> <td> <b> ku</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> they</td> <td> <b> kudye</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The middle columns will be explained below, when some knowledge of the verbs is attained. For reference, the object forms are abbreviations for expressions with <b>e</b>, and the beneficiary forms, for expressions with <b>vo</b>.
<p>For interrogatives the root is <b>hal</b> ‘which’, which naturally forms <b>halto</b> ‘who’ and <b>halsoy</b> ‘what’. In the term <b>haye</b> ‘where’ we can recognize the place suffix <b>ye</b>.
<p>Rather than having a special word for ‘when’, Yamda makes do with expressions such as <b>hal hyêr</b> ‘which day’. In a like fashion, ‘how’ is <b>hal giyo</b> ‘which way’.
<p>Finally there is the class called <i>scolisecî</i> or Quantity Trustees <red>[Indefinite pronouns]</red>. These are formed from these roots:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> vaye</b> </td> <td> none </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> prin</b> </td> <td> some</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šang</b> </td> <td> many</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jaha</b> </td> <td> every</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
These are combined in exactly the same way as <b>hal</b>; thus <b>vayeto</b> ‘no one’, <b>prinye</b> ‘somwhere’, <b>šangsoy</b> ‘many things’, <b>jaha hyêr</b> ‘all days, always’.
<h3><a name="Relations">Relations</a></h3>
The most important expressions of Relation are those which indicate Case, which must accompany every Noun and specify its role in the Action. These are listed below, along with the associated verbal prefix, whose use will be detailed later.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> ng</b> </td> <td> —</td> <td> actor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> e</b> </td> <td> <b>gyo-</b></td> <td> object acted upon (<b>ek</b> before a vowel)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vo</b> </td> <td> <b>gê-</b></td> <td> beneficiary or indirect object</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ba</b> </td> <td> <b>na-</b></td> <td> instrument</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pan</b> </td> <td> <b>na-</b></td> <td> accompanying person </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ang</b> </td> <td> <b>ngo-</b></td> <td> destination, or later action</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ôta</b> </td> <td> <b>tya-</b></td> <td> source, or previous action</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> har</b> </td> <td> <b>har-</b></td> <td> in the way of, like</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kara</b> </td> <td> <b>kara-</b></td> <td> reason or purpose</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ye</b> </td> <td> <b>ye-</b></td> <td> location</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> is</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> Promoted Passive; discussed with Verbs.</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Here is a sentence devised to show as many of these Relations as possible:
<blockquote> <tt> Kyol ng nêsla e nyêr vo lêsya ôta yêjo ye fêyin ba môrta.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kyol ng nêsla e nyêr vo lêsya ôta yêjo ye fêyin ba môrta.</b> <br/>
give-3s nom shopkeeper-f obj date.wine to matron from upriver at shop with mug<br/>
<i> The shopkeeper gave the matron the date-wine from upriver at the store using a cup.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
As shown, the verb tends to come first, but the native is indifferent as to the order of the other Nouns. No confusion is possible since each is accompanied by the particle which identifies its role. The following sentence is equally correct:
<blockquote> <tt> Kyol ba môrta ye fêyin ôta yêjo ng nêsla vo lêsya e nyêr.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kyol ba môrta ye fêyin ôta yêjo ng nêsla vo lêsya e nyêr.</b> <br/>
give-3s with mug at shop from upriver nom shopkeeper-f to matron obj date.wine<br/>
<i> The shopkeeper gave the matron the date-wine from upriver at the store using a cup.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<red>[Foriy doesn’t really need to tell Verdurians this, but for English speakers: the semantic role of recipients, observers, or beneficiaries is <b>vo</b>, not <b>e</b>. That is, the human targeted by ‘tell, give, consult, lead, love, answer, etc.’ is dative, not accusative. Often this means Yamda can save on a verb: <b>vera</b> is both ‘say’ a thing (<b>e</b>) and ‘tell’ a person (<b>vo</b>).]</red>
<h3><a name="Nominal">Nominal sentences</a></h3>
As I have described, what we call nouns may be used as verbs; but it is also possible, and common, for sentences to have no noun at all. These can be said correspond to copular sentences in Verdurian, that is, those using <i>esan</i>, which does not exist in Yamda.
<blockquote> <tt> Sandala is Kyaja.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sandala is Kyaja.</b> <br/>
princess trigger Kyaja<br/>
<i> Kjaja is a princess.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Jang is Vedura.</tt> <br/>
<b> Jang is Vedura.</b> <br/>
strong trigger Verduria<br/>
<i> Verduria is strong.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ye tôyvin is kyaya.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ye tôyvin is kyaya.</b> <br/>
in kitchen trigger dog<br/>
<i> The dog is in the kitchen.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<red>[English speakers may be tempted to read <b>is</b> as ’is’, since it fits the meaning here. It is not a copula, but a trigger marker, explained below.]</red>
<p>A very similar expression uses the particle <b>myal</b>, which expresses existence: <b>myal fa</b> means “there is a god” or “a god exists.” A location is usually specified:
<blockquote> <tt> Myal šoga ye pargin.</tt> <br/>
<b> Myal šoga ye pargin.</b> <br/>
exist box at dock<br/>
<i> There is a crate on the dock.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
This can be reversed as well: <b>Ye pargin myal šoga</b>.
<p><b>Myal</b> is also used for possession:
<blockquote> <tt> Myal braha is ne.</tt> <br/>
<b> Myal braha is ne.</b> <br/>
exist horse trigger I<br/>
<i> I have a horse.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<b>Myal</b> is not a verb and does not have a past or future tense. This deficiency may of course be rectified by providing a time period:
<blockquote> <tt> Myal hedar braha is ne.</tt> <br/>
<b> Myal hedar braha is ne.</b> <br/>
exist yesterday horse trigger I<br/>
<i> I had a horse yesterday.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
There are no Possessive Adjectives, but the case marker <b>pan</b> may be used: <b>braha pan Kyaja</b> ‘Kyaja’s horse.’
<h3><a name="Verb">The Verb</a></h3>
The Verb is the most difficult Matter within the Yamda language, and many a Verdurian must, with his sorry attempts at simplifying it, come across to the natives as a Savage himself. It is not, however, beyond understanding if it is approached systematically, as the most complicated Terrain gives way to him who possesses a Map.
<p>In Grammar we distinguish expressions of State from expressions of Action. In Yamda it is more convenable to begin with completed Actions, which are expressed with the simplest possible form.
<p>Let us consider the word <b>harpa</b> ‘hit, strike’. First, it is inflected by Person and Number.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> harpan</b> </td> <td> I struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpaw</b> </td> <td> you (s.) struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpaj</b> </td> <td> he or she struck, it struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpat</b> </td> <td> he struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpal</b> </td> <td> she struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpango</b> </td> <td> you and I struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpajo</b> </td> <td> the two of them struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpakun</b> </td> <td> we struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpaku</b> </td> <td> you (plural) struck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpakoj</b> </td> <td> they struck</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
As with nouns, there is a Dual number, though only in the first and third Persons. A Yamda will be scrupulous in using <b>ngo</b> when referring to himself and his interlocutor, where we would simply use the ‘we’ inflection. More than one Verdurian has been Surprised, uttering something as simple as <b>verakun ora</b> ‘we will talk’, to be warily or angrily asked what other Person will be present.
<p>The Gender inflections are used when a specific individual does the action. A generic or unknown person takes <b>j</b> only. I have never heard a Gender distinction used in the dual or plural, although Lt. Ružeon informs me that this is done in Bhrumese.
<p>If a verb ends in another vowel, use that in place of <b>a</b>: <b>gardon</b> ‘I ate’. If the root of the verb does not end in a vowel, supply <b>a</b>: <b>mêngan</b> ‘I worked.’ We may say that for this class of words, the verbal root is indeed <b>mênga</b>, but in noun form the <b>a</b> is lost: thus <b>mêng</b> is ‘work, working’ while <b>harpa</b> is ‘a blow or hit.’
<p>These expressions all imply that the action is complete. If it is a State— it expresses a process or is incomplete— we add the suffix <b>yê</b>:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayên</b> </td> <td> I am or was striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêw</b> </td> <td> you (s.) are or were striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêj</b> </td> <td> he or she or it is or was striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêt</b> </td> <td> he is or was striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêl</b> </td> <td> she is or was striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêngo</b> </td> <td> you and I are or were striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêjo</b> </td> <td> the two of them are or were striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêkun</b> </td> <td> we are or were striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêku</b> </td> <td> you (plural) are or were striking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpayêkoj</b> </td> <td> they are or were striking</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The <b>yê</b> forms are indifferent as to time. In the past, they emphasize what action was ongoing. In the present, the <b>yê</b> form is usual, since in the present moment an action is either incomplete, or not done at all; or if done, that action immediately appertains to the past.
<p>It is a frequent complaint of Verdurians that the natives mis-use the completive, reporting as done, work which is not done. If you are advised that “the document is written” or “the meal is cooked”, it may mean only that the worker is reassuring you that he takes the task seriously and intends to soon finish it.
<p>Verbs whose root ends in a consonant do not here supply an <b>a</b>. Thus <b>mêngyên</b> ‘I was working.’
<p>These forms are often used to give the background or ongoing task to which the main action is an interruption. For instance:
<blockquote> <tt> Mêngyên, lôdat ng nabyo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Mêngyên, lôdat ng nabyo.</b> <br/>
work-impfv-1s come-3sm nom captain<br/>
<i> While I was working, the ship captain arrived.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If the subject of both verbs is the same, the yê verb loses its person marking:
<blockquote> <tt> Lyugayê, tidil ng Kyaja e nyasa letanye.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lyugayê, tidil ng Kyaja e nyasa letanye.</b> <br/>
clean-impfv, find-3sf nom Kyaja obj bag coin-of<br/>
<i> While cleaning, Kyaja found a bag of coins.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<p>The suffix <b>ôd</b> casts doubt on the action, without denying it entirely: <b>harpanôd</b> ‘he may have struck’, <b>harpayêwôd</b> ‘you may be striking’. I have called this the Remote tense, as in Caďinor; this is misleading as to particular uses, but helpful as a mnemonic. The main usage is to indicate that the speaker does not have certain knowledge that the Action took place.
<blockquote> <tt> Prapatôd ng ryagiyto e rêyla.</tt> <br/>
<b> Prapatôd ng ryagiyto e rêyla.</b> <br/>
kiss-3sm-remote nom gardener-m obj servant-f<br/>
<i> The gardener may have kissed the maidservant.\</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
When speaking to a Verdurian, the native will use the tenses strategically. If he does not want to do something, or does not wish to implicate a relative, his report will express doubt and distance with <b>ôd</b>; if he wishes to please you, the action will be reported as completed and veridical regardless of reality.
<p>There is no future tense as such, but the Yamda use, or mis-use, the word <b>ora</b> ‘tomorrow’ so that it effectively functions as one.
<blockquote> <tt> Lôdat ora ng nabyo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lôdat ora ng nabyo.</b> <br/>
come-3sm tomorrow nom captain<br/>
<i> The ship captain will arrive (tomorrow).</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Here the time reference is exceedingly vague, anywhere from the next hour to the next month.
<p>It will be noted that the ordinary verb <b>lôdat</b> is used. As usual, this implies that that the event will be completed; compare
<blockquote> <tt> Mêngyêt ora ng nabyo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Mêngyêt ora ng nabyo.</b> <br/>
work-impfv-3sm tomorrow nom captain<br/>
<i> The ship captain will be working (tomorrow).</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Though all know that the future is uncertain, both sentences are still appropriate if the event is certain (<b>Pargat ora Abaša</b> “The sun will rise”) or at least likely. The native is, of course, anxiously reassuring about the future when speaking to any Verdurian. Among themselves they are more apt to circumspection, and to use the remote tense to emphasize the inscrutability of time. You will note that your clerk, even if given certain knowledge that the captain is arriving soon, will inform another Yamda:
<blockquote> <tt> Lôdatôd ora ng nabyo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lôdatôd ora ng nabyo.</b> <br/>
come-3sm-remote tomorrow nom captain<br/>
<i> The ship captain may arrive (tomorrow).</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If <b>ora</b> is felt to be too remote, <b>hyirin</b> ‘soon’ will be substituted. The speaker by this wishes the listener to believe that the event is imminent, but feels no urgency himself.
<p>An intensive is formed by repeating the first syllable of the verb. This indicates an action performed with a particular passion, or repeatedly. If <b>harpa</b> is ‘to hit’, <b>haharpa</b> is ‘to beat violently’; if <b>nyêš</b> is ‘to see’, <b>nyênyêš</b> is ‘to observe closely or obsessively’; if <b>vera</b> is ‘to speak’, <b>vevera</b> is ‘to babble or speak with prolixity.’
<h3><a name="Universal">The Universal Passive</a></h3>
Now we come to perhaps the most perplexing feature of the language, in its full generality unknown among civilized languages; I have called it the Universal Passive. <red>[Terrestrials would call it a trigger system; I gloss the trigger affix as TA.]</red>
<p>Let us start with two related sentences:
<blockquote> <tt> Harpal ng vempan e rêto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Harpal ng vempan e rêto.</b> <br/>
strike-3s-f nom master-f obj servant<br/>
<i> The mistress struck the servant.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Gyoharpat ng vempan is rêto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gyoharpat ng vempan is rêto.</b> <br/>
TA-strike-3s-m nom master-f trigger servant<br/>
<i> The servant was struck by the mistress.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
In the second sentence, the servant is now marked with <b>is</b> rather than the object case marker <b>e</b>, and the verb agrees with him (<b>-at</b>) rather than the mistress (<b>-al</b>). In addition the prefix <b>gyo</b> appears on the verb. As ever, the two nouns may appear in either order.
<p><red>[More accurately, the case marker attaches to a noun phrase, and it is the case + NP constituent which can be freely rearranged.]</red>
<p>The reader will see the parallel to our own Passive, which is why I have started here. But this Operation is fully general in Yamda, and may apply to any noun in the sentence, each of which has its own verb prefix. Here are some examples derived from the same sample sentence:
<blockquote> <tt> Kyol ng nêsla e nyêr vo byôr ôta yêjo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kyol ng nêsla e nyêr vo byôr ôta yêjo.</b> <br/>
give-3sf nom shopkeeper-f obj date.wine to boy from upriver<br/>
<i> The shopkeeper gave the boy the date-wine from upriver.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Gyokyoj ng nêsla is nyêr vo byôr ôta yêjo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gyokyoj ng nêsla is nyêr vo byôr ôta yêjo.</b> <br/>
TA-give-3s nom hopkeeper-f trigger date.wine to boy from upriver<br/>
<i> The date.wine from upriver was given to the boy by the shopkeeper.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Vokyon ng nêsla e nyêr is byôr ôta yêjo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Vokyon ng nêsla e nyêr is byôr ôta yêjo.</b> <br/>
TA-give-3s nom shopkeeper-f obj date.wine trigger boy from upriver<br/>
<i> The boy was given the date-wine from upriver by the shopkeeper.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Tyakyoj ng nêsla e nyêr vo byôr is yêjo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Tyakyoj ng nêsla e nyêr vo byôr is yêjo.</b> <br/>
TA-give-3s nom shopkeeper-f trigger obj date.wine to boy from upriver<br/>
<i> From upriver was the boy given the date-wine by the shopkeeper.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
In making such variations, take heed to make the correct agreement on the verb, and do not neglect the correct prefix.
<p>The actor in the sentence, marked with <b>ng</b>, may instead be marked with <b>is</b>, with no change to the verb. The meaning is little changed, but this construction may be said to nudge the listener’s Attention to that person.
<h3><a name="VerbsPronouns">Verbs with trustee nouns</a></h3>
Any noun may be replaced by a trustee noun, but this adds certain complications.
<p>First, when agreement is marked on the verb, it is not necessary to use the trustee noun at all, though it is not incorrect. Thus <b>harpan</b> fully conveys the meaning “I struck”; one can say <b>harpan ng ne</b>, but one would only do so for clarity or emphasis, if there were questions as to the one striking.
<p>This applies as well to participants promoted by Universal Passive. Thus <b>gyoharpan</b> means “I was struck”, which may be expanded to <b>gyoharpan is ne</b>.
<p>Second, an inferior refers to a superior using a title (<b>mada</b> father, <b>vôta</b> boss, <b>vempan</b> master, <b>nabyo</b> captain, <b>hyanto</b> lord) rather than <b>pôr</b>, and the superior uses that same title rather than <b>ne</b>. However, the verbal inflections do not change:
<blockquote> <tt> Nuroyêw ng vempan e kawa kya?</tt> <br/>
<b> Nuroyêw ng vempan e kawa kya?</b> <br/>
want-2s nom master obj coffee Q<br/>
<i> Does the master want coffee?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Third, there are abbreviations for common combinations of case marker and trustee noun; these have been given in the Trustee Nouns section. These abbreviations must appear just after the verb. Examples are <b>êm</b> ‘me’, <b>vên</b> ‘to me’. <red>[That is, these are clitics.]</red>
<blockquote> <tt> Kyol-vên ng nêsla e nyêr.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kyol-vên ng nêsla e nyêr.</b> <br/>
give-3sf for.1s nom shopkeeper-f obj date.wine <br/>
<i> The shopkeeper gave me the date-wine.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Kôršot-êt ng samto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kôršot-êt ng samto.</b> <br/>
kill-3sm-obj.3s nom king<br/>
<i> The king killed him.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Third, when the actor is demoted by Universal Passive, and is a trustee noun, it is also attached to the verb. We can say that the a trustee noun serves as an abbreviation for <b>ng</b> plus itself.
<blockquote> <tt> Gyokyoj-ne is nyêr vo byôr.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gyokyoj-ne is nyêr vo byôr.</b> <br/>
TA-give-3s shopkeeper-f trigger date.wine to boy from upriver<br/>
<i> The date wine was given to the boy by me.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
It is possible to use two of these abbreviations together, but not more.
<blockquote> <tt> Kyol-vên-êt ng nêsla.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kyol-vên-êt ng nêsla.</b> <br/>
give-3sf for.me obj.3s nom shopkeeper-f <br/>
<i> The shopkeeper gave it to me.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Where we would use a Reflexive, these abbreviations are appropriate instead:
<blockquote> <tt> Lyugal-êl ng ryala.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lyugal-êl ng ryala.</b> <br/>
wash-3sf-obj.3sf girl<br/>
<i> The girl washed herself.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
By strict logic this sentence only says that the girl washed a female; context may be trusted to clarify.
<h3><a name="Imperative">Imperative</a></h3>
The verb root alone, without any final vowel, serves as an Imperative: <b>Gard!</b> ‘Eat!’ <b>Pyej!</b> ‘Walk!’ These may take ordinary or trustee-noun abbreviations: <b>Gard e nyura!</b> ‘Eat the fish!’ <b>Kyo-vên!</b> ‘Give it to me!’
<p>If the verb root ends in a consonant plus <b>y</b>, add the root vowel: <b>Hôkyo insoy!</b> ‘Know this!’
<p>Using the Universal Passive, an imperative may be addressed to an inanimate object:
<blockquote> <tt> Gyolyug is jawada!</tt> <br/>
<b> Gyolyug is jawada!</b> <br/>
TA-wash trigger clothes<br/>
<i> The clothes be washed!</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
However, the root Imperative is too peremptory for any but children and servants. For peers, the ordinary verb is used: <b>Gardow e nyura!</b> ‘You eat the fish!’ Superiors should not be given orders, but ideally Hints. The proper Téllinorese servant tells his master, <b>Nirta is nyura</b> ‘The fish is ready,’ rather than <b>Lôdaw ang gardo</b> ‘Come to the meal.’
<h3><a name="Nominalizations">Nominalizations</a></h3>
As I have described, a verb root may also act as a noun referring to that Activity, take nominal inflections, and act in every way as a Noun. I add that the passivizing prefixes may be applied, retaining their meaning. Thus if <b>harpa</b> is ‘hitting’, <b>gyoharpa</b> is ‘being hit’; if <b>kyo</b> is ‘giving’, <b>gyokyo</b> is ‘being given (as a thing)’, <b>genkyo</b> is ‘receiving a gift’
<p>These words can then be turned into Persons using the <b>to</b> and <b>la</b> suffixes. Thus <b>harpato</b> is a man who hits, <b>gyoharpato</b> is a man who is hit. A man who loves is <b>rakyoto</b>; the woman he loves is <b>genrakyotla</b>.
<p>We distinguish between a noun <i>baďi</i> ‘hit(ting)’ and an infinitive verb <i>baďir</i> ‘to hit’, but <b>harpa</b> serves for both.
<h3><a name="Adverb">The Adverb</a></h3>
Grammars of Caďinor consider the Adverb to be the highest form of expression, because it embodies Judgment, the sole province of Thinking Kinds. However, I cannot report a special status for the Yamda adverb, because it is the same as the adjective. It simply occurs next to the verb rather than a noun.
<blockquote> <tt> Pyejeyêt ryêye ng takto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Pyejeyêt ryêye ng takto.</b> <br/>
walk-impfv-3sm slow nom hunter<br/>
<i> The hunter was walking slowly.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<b>Ryêye</b> may equally precede the verb.
<h2><a name="Sentence">The Sentence </a></h2>
Of simple sentences, I have already spoken much, and given many examples, which I will not repeat here.
<h3><a name="Negatives">Negatives</a></h3>
The negative is formed with the particle <b>va</b>:
<blockquote> <tt> Va rakyoyêt ng ryagiyto vo rêyla.</tt> <br/>
<b> Va rakyoyêt ng ryagiyto vo rêyla.</b> <br/>
not love-impfv-3sm nom garderner-m to servant-f<br/>
<i> The gardener doesn’t love the maidservant.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Va ye tôyvin is kyaya.</tt> <br/>
<b> Va ye tôyvin is kyaya.</b> <br/>
not in kitchen trigger dog<br/>
<i> The dog is not in the kitchen.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Va myal braha is ne.</tt> <br/>
<b> Va myal braha is ne.</b> <br/>
not exist horse trigger I<br/>
<i> I don’t have a horse.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<b>Va</b> can be used to deny that a particular Participant contributed to the action; but this can only be done to the <b>ng</b> subject, or to a participant promoted by the Universal Passive.
<blockquote> <tt> Rakyoyêt va ng ryagiyto vo rêyla.</tt> <br/>
<b> Rakyoyêt va ng ryagiyto vo rêyla.</b> <br/>
love-impfv-3sm nom garderner-m to servant-f<br/>
<i> It is not the gardener that loves the maidservant.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Gêrakyoyêl ng ryagiyto va is rêyla.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gêrakyoyêl ng ryagiyto va is rêyla.</b> <br/>
TA-love-impfv-3sf nom garderner-m not trigger servant-f<br/>
<i> It is not the maidservant that the gardener loves.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The Case Marker may in fact be omitted in these sentences.
<p>This may be contrasted to <b>vaye</b> which is a generic negative like our <i>suy</i> [‘not any’]:
<blockquote> <tt> Rakyoyêt ng ryagiyto vo rêyla vaye.</tt> <br/>
<b> Rakyoyêt ng ryagiyto vo rêyla vaye.</b> <br/>
not love-impfv-3sm nom garderner-m to servant-f none<br/>
<i> The gardener loves no maidservants.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Questions">Questions</a></h3>
The question particle <b>kya</b> is very similar, but normally appears at the end of the sentence. It is often omitted, intonation alone lending the query interrogative force.
<blockquote> <tt> Rakyoyêt ng ryagiyto vo rêyla kya?</tt> <br/>
<b> Rakyoyêt ng ryagiyto vo rêyla kya?</b> <br/>
love-impfv-3sm nom garderner-m to servant-f Q<br/>
<i> Does the gardener love the maidservant?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Myal braha is pôr kya?</tt> <br/>
<b> Myal braha is pôr kya?</b> <br/>
exist horse trigger you Q<br/>
<i> Do you have a horse?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The response is <b>Ngêt</b> ‘that’, for yes, and <b>vaye</b> for no. Speaking to a Verdurian, the native will often use <b>ar ar</b> or <b>řo řo</b> even if they speak no other Verdurian. (As they cannot pronounce our <b>ř</b>, expect to hear this as <b>ro</b> or <b>ho</b>.)
<p>Where we place other interrogatives at the beginning of the sentence, the Yamda place them at the end:
<blockquote> <tt> Prejej ora ang Topêro ng halto?</tt> <br/>
<b> Prejej ora ang Topêro ng halto?</b> <br/>
walk-3s tomorrow to Topêro nom who<br/>
<i> Who is going to Topêro?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ang Topêro is firjo haye?</tt> <br/>
<b> Ang Topêro is firjo haye?</b> <br/>
to Topêro trigger road where<br/>
<i> Where is the road to Topêro?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Relative">Relative clauses</a></h3>
A complex sentence is one with multiple verbs, which may bring their own actors or participants. One such is the relative clause. Let us inspect the simplest case:
<blockquote> <tt> Lôdat is dêsto sanyêšat e šreto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lôdat is dêsto sanyêšat e šreto.</b> <br/>
arrive-3sm trigger male sub-see-3sm obj ghost<br/>
<i> The man who saw a ghost has arrived.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The relative clause is not marked, as in our language, by a trustee noun, but by a prefix <b>sa</b> on the verb. <red>[This precedes the trigger affix.]</red> The head noun is marked with <b>is</b> not <b>ng</b>, as will be important shortly.
<p>The relative clause need not appear next to its target, but may be moved anywhere in the sentence.
<blockquote> <tt> Sanyêšat e šreto lôdat is dêsto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sanyêšat e šreto lôdat is dêsto.</b> <br/>
sub-see-3sm obj ghost arrive-3sm trigger male <br/>
<i> The man who saw a ghost has arrived.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
This is not difficult for the Verdurian, who then proceeds to apply the suffix to any Participant in the action. But this is incorrect, for only the main actor, or one promoted by the Universal Passive, may take a relative clause. That is, only a noun marked with <b>is</b> can relativize.
<p>Here is how a sentence looks when the ghost-seer is the indirect object:
<blockquote> <tt> Gêverat-ne is dêsto sanyêšat e šreto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gêverat-ne is dêsto sanyêšat e šreto.</b> <br/>
TA-speak-3s-1s trigger male sub-see-3sm obj ghost<br/>
<i> I spoke to the man who saw a ghost.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
And here, if he is a companion to the speaker:
<blockquote> <tt> Nagardot-ne is dêsto sanyêšat e šreto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Nagardot-ne is dêsto sanyêšat e šreto.</b> <br/>
TA-dine-3s-1s trigger male sub-see-3sm obj ghost<br/>
<i> I dined with the man who saw a ghost.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
To recapitulate, if the Participant who is the target of the relative clause is the main actor, one has only to mark the subordinate verb with <b>sa</b> and make sure to mark the actor with <b>is</b> rather than <b>ng</b>. But if it is not the main actor, the procedure is as follows:
<ol>
<li> Use the Universal Passive to promote the participant. This will require adding a prefix to the main verb, and changing the participant’s marking particle to <b>is</b>.
<li> The previous actor is marked with <b>ng</b>, or if a trustee noun, appears as a suffix.
<li> The subordinated verb, as before, is marked with <b>sa</b>.
</ol>
I have never heard a Sentence which contains two <b>sa</b> clauses, though in theory it should be possible, by relativizing a Noun which itself occurs within a relative clause.
<h3><a name="Helping">Helping verbs</a></h3>
Now let us consider sentences with helping verbs. These may be considered under three Kinds. One Kind is verbs which comment on the action itself, as to possibility, obligation, or morality.
<p>This is done by placing the helping verb in the <b>yê</b> or incomplete form, with no personal ending, exactly the construction we have seen for a background event. Thus:
<blockquote> <tt> Môryoyê verayêl ng ryala har Vedura.</tt> <br/>
<b> Môryoyê verayêl ng ryala har Vedura.</b> <br/>
can-impfv speak-impfv-3sf nom girl way Verduria<br/>
<i> The girl can speak Verdurian.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Duryayê nyêšaw e ryôjo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Duryayê nyêšaw e ryôjo.</b> <br/>
should-impfv see-2s obj dancing<br/>
<i> You ought to see the dance.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The second Kind is the word root used as a noun.
<blockquote> <tt> Va numel is lêsa e jona-ne ang emyahto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Va numel is lêsa e jona-ne ang emyahto.</b> <br/>
not like-3sf trigger mother obj visiting-1s to shaman<br/>
<i> My mother doesn’t like my visiting the shaman.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
This is exactly the form of <b>Va numel is lêsa e ryôjo</b> ‘My mother doesn’t like dancing’, but here the nominalized verb has its own subject and object.
<h3><a name="Sentential">[Sentential objects]</a></h3>
The third Kind may be seen as the object of the verb being a state of affairs, rather than an entity. That is, we do not want a person or thing simply, we want an action to occur.
<blockquote> <tt> Nurot is vempan sapafise is luru vo gyopalôtoga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Nurot is vempan sapafise is luru vo gyopalôtoga.</b> <br/>
want-1sm master sub-TA-make-cool trigger wine for guest-pl<br/>
<i> The master wants the wine to be cooled for the guests.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Here we see the same <b>sa</b> prefix used for relative clauses; this marks its entire sentence or state of affairs (that the wine be cooled) as subordinate. In fact the construction is the same, and like a relative clause the head noun (the person wanting) must be marked with <b>is</b>.
<p>For us a relative clause must repeat the head noun, but this is not the case in Yamda.
<p>A report, that is a statement of another’s words or beliefs, is handled by simple concatenation.
<blockquote> <tt> Veryêt ng tôyto, nirta ora is gardo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Veryêt ng tôyto, nirta ora is gardo.</b> <br/>
say-impfv-3sm nom cook / ready tomorrow trigger eating<br/>
<i> The kitchen man says that the meal will be ready soon.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Conditionals">Conditionals</a></h3>
A conditional statement is formed by a similar process of concatenation, using the suffix of dubiety -<b>ôd</b>.
<blockquote> <tt> Jonawôd ang emyahto, hyutôd ora e šulda.</tt> <br/>
<b> Jonawôd ang emyahto, hyutôd ora e šulda.</b> <br/>
visit-2s-remote to shaman / suck-3sm-remote tomorrow obj illness<br/>
<i> If you go to the shaman, he will suck out the illness.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Causatives">Causatives</a></h3>
When an actor is compelled by another, this is indicated by the causative prefix <b>pa</b>. Ideally, the actual actor is marked by <b>ng</b> and the compeller by <b>is</b>:
<blockquote> <tt> Papyejel is lêsa ng byôr ang lyasta.</tt> <br/>
<b> Papyejel is lêsa ng byôr ang lyasta.</b> <br/>
caus-walk-3sf trigger mother nom boy to bed<br/>
<i> The mother sent the boy to bed.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If another participant has been passivized, it will, as always, take the marker <b>is</b>. The preference is then to mark the compeller with <b>ng</b> and the actor with <b>vo</b>.
<blockquote> <tt> Gyopagardoj ng lêsa is bajela vo byôr.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gyopagardoj ng lêsa is bajela vo byôr.</b> <br/>
TA-caus-eat-3s nom mother trigger eggplant for boy<br/>
<i> The eggplant was made by the mother to be eaten by the boy.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Example">A Yamda tale</a></h2>
The Yamda are great storytellers, and it is well worth one’s time to stop and listen when the old men and women are trading tales. I have written many of them down, though this captures only part of the storyteller’s performance.
<p>This is a story told to me by a man named Lêrdo. In this story a man is curious about what seem to him strange people, the Verdurians. In many stories a clever Yamda bests the Verdurians, but not in this case, likely because the story is told about a Trêng, and the Trêng are considered greedy and foolish.
<blockquote> <tt> Myal dêsto salôdat ôta Jašo yêjoye. Prôgoyêt ba Hyilto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Myal dêsto salôdat ôta Jašo yêjoye. Prôgoyêt ba Hyilto.</b> <br/>
exist man come-3sm from Jašo upriver-loc / name-impfv-3sm instr Hyilto<br/>
<i> There was a man, he was from Jašo upriver. His name was Hyilto. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Gênyêšyêkoj is šruda salôdakoj, sapabyudokoj ng samto, sasitakoj e leta šang. Hal giyo?</tt> <br/>
<b> Gênyêšyêkoj is šruda salôdakoj, sapabyudokoj ng samto, sasitakoj e leta šang. Hal giyo?</b> <br/>
TA-see-impfv-3p trigger westerners sub-come-3p / sub-caus-leave-3p nom king / sub-craft-3p obj money. much / which way<br/>
<i> He saw the Verdurians who came, who kicked out the king, who made much money. In what way? </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Verat-re, hôkyoyên e giyo. Pakôkon ng šrija šruto, na pigakun ora e yônsoyga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Verat-re, hôkyoyên e giyo. Pakôkon ng šrija šruto, na pigakun ora e yônsoyga.</b> <br/>
tell-3sm-to.3s / know-impfv-1s obj way / cause-drunk-1s nom one westerner / and share-1p tomorrow obj secret-pl<br/>
<i> “I know what I’ll do,” he told himself. “I will get one of them drunk, and we will share secrets.” </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Emyahtot ng mada pan Hyilto, ôtašô hôkyoyêt e yônsoyga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Emyahtot ng mada pan Hyilto, ôtašô hôkyoyêt e yônsoyga.</b> <br/>
shaman-3s nom father with Hyilto / thus know-impfv-3s obj secret-pl<br/>
<i> Hyilto’s father was a shaman, so he knew secrets.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Pyejet haršô.</tt> <br/>
<b> Pyejet haršô.</b> <br/>
walk-3s thusly<br/>
<i> He did just that.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Jonat vo šrija šruto na piprat e vera, na miktat-re ang ryôjo pan hyôro na rya jawalaga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Jonat vo šrija šruto na piprat e vera, na miktat-re ang ryôjo pan hyôro na rya jawalaga.</b> <br/>
meet-3sm for one westerner and finish-3sm obj talking / and bring-3sm-for.3s to dance with music and lovely chick-pl<br/>
<i> He met one of the Verdurians and got to talking, and he took him to a dance with music and good looking girls. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Veran-gô, hyirin kôkon ng šruto har nyitu.</tt> <br/>
<b> Veran-gô, hyirin kôkon ng šruto har nyitu.</b> <br/>
say-1s-for.2s / soon drunk-3sm nom westerner like sow<br/>
<i> I tell you, the Verdurian was soon drunk as a sow.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Veran-re ng dêsto, Pigango ora e prin yônsoyga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Veran-re ng dêsto, Pigango ora e prin yônsoyga.</b> <br/>
say-3sm-for.3s nom man / share-1du tomorrow obj some secret-pl<br/>
<i> “Let’s tell some secrets,” the man said to him. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> —Ar ar. Kyo-vên e nyêr ling, na pyejeyêngo.</tt> <br/>
<b> —Ar ar. Kyo-vên e nyêr ling, na pyejeyêngo.</b> <br/>
yes yes / give-for.me obj date.wine other / and walk-impfv-1du<br/>
<i> “Yes. Give me some more date wine and we will do that.”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> —Myal šray is ku, na takôtaj e venaga. Pyejeku hal giyo?</tt> <br/>
<b> —Myal šray is ku, na takôtaj e venaga. Pyejeku hal giyo?</b> <br/>
exist magic trigger you.pl / and burst-3s obj house-pl / walk-2p which way<br/>
<i> “You have magic that blows up houses. How do you do that?”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> —Ar, tidikun e fa tyoranye, na takôtoyêt haršô. Veran-gô ora e giyo.</tt> <br/>
<b> —Ar, tidikun e fa tyoranye, na takôtoyêt haršô. Veran-gô ora e giyo.</b> <br/>
yes / capture-1p obj god wind-of / and burst-impfv-3sm thusly / say-1s-for.2s tomorrow obj way<br/>
<i> “Yes, we captured the god of the winds, and he acts like that. I’ll tell you how.” </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> An verat-re ng šruto e giyo, tidi e fa.</tt> <br/>
<b> An verat-re ng šruto e giyo, tidi e fa.</b> <br/>
and tell-3sm-for.3s nom westerner obj way / capture obj god<br/>
<i> And the Verdurian told him how to capture the god.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> —Giyoyêku ye kêrbaga na dyatiyêku pan nêbesoy. Pyejeku hal giyo?</tt> <br/>
<b> —Giyoyêku ye kêrbaga na dyatiyêku pan nêbesoy. Pyejeku hal giyo?</b> <br/>
travel-impfv-2p at ship-pl and return-impfv-2p with treasure / walk-2p which way<br/>
<i> “You go away in ships and come back with fine merchandise. How do you do that?”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> —Ar, tidikun e fa topenye, na pôtakun-êt ye kêrba.</tt> <br/>
<b> —Ar, tidikun e fa topenye, na pôtakun-êt ye kêrba.</b> <br/>
yes / capture-1p obj god sead-of / and put-1p-obj.3s at ship<br/>
<i> “Yes, we captured the god of the sea and put him in the ship. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Papyejeyêt ng kune ang vena, nad myal nêbesoy.</tt> <br/>
<b> Papyejeyêt ng kune ang vena, nad myal nêbesoy.</b> <br/>
caus-walk-impfv-3sm nom 1p to house / there.far exist treasure<br/>
<i> He takes us to his house where rich things are found.” </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> An verat-re ng šruto e giyo, tidi e fa.</tt> <br/>
<b> An verat-re ng šruto e giyo, tidi e fa.</b> <br/>
and tell-3sm-for.3s nom westerner obj way / capture obj god<br/>
<i> And the Verdurian told him how to capture the god.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Verat ng šruto, Myaga ver-vên e yônsoy</tt> <br/>
<b> Verat ng šruto, Myaga ver-vên e yônsoy</b> <br/>
say-3sm nom westerner / now say-for.1s obj secret<br/>
<i> “Now you tell me a secret,” said the Verdurian.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> —Emyahtot ng mada. Hôkyayêt e palôd vo rupanto. </tt> <br/>
<b> —Emyahtot ng mada. Hôkyayêt e palôd vo rupanto. </b> <br/>
shaman-3sm nom father / know-impfv-3sm obj summoning for monster<br/>
<i> “My father was a shaman. He knew how to summon a monster.”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> —Pakôkya-vên e ngêtoy.</tt> <br/>
<b> —Pakôkya-vên e ngêtoy.</b> <br/>
caus-know-for.2s that.thing<br/>
<i> “Teach me that,” said the Verdurian. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> An verat-re ng dêsto e giyo, palôd vo rupanto.</tt> <br/>
<b> An verat-re ng dêsto e giyo, palôd vo rupanto.</b> <br/>
and tell-3sm-for.3s nom man obj way / summoning for monster<br/>
<i> And the man taught the Verdurian how to summon monsters.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Hôkyayêt ng mada e dês ang šretafarga. Lifto va moryoyê mikyayêw e prinsoy ôta ir ang nad, to ôta nad and ir.</tt> <br/>
<b> Hôkyayêt ng mada e dês ang šretafarga. Lifto va moryoyê mikyayêw e prinsoy ôta ir ang nad, to ôta nad and ir.</b> <br/>
know-impfv-3sm nom father obj enter to shade-land-pl / but not can-impfv take-impfv-2s obj something from here to there.far / or from there.far to here<br/>
<i> “My father knew how to travel in the spirit world. But you can’t take anything from here to there, or there to here.”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> —Pakôkya-vên e ngêtoy.</tt> <br/>
<b> —Pakôkya-vên e ngêtoy.</b> <br/>
caus-know-for.2s that.thing<br/>
<i> “Teach me that,” said the Verdurian. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> An verat-re ng dêsto e giyo, dês ang šretefar.</tt> <br/>
<b> An verat-re ng dêsto e giyo, dês ang šretefar.</b> <br/>
and tell-3sm-for.3s nom man obj way / enter to shade-land<br/>
<i> And he taught the Verdurian how to travel the spirit world.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ye kakin hyêr, šakyuyê pangat ng Hyilto e sita. Nuroyêt tareda har šrutoga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ye kakin hyêr, šakyuyê pangat ng Hyilto e sita. Nuroyêt tareda har šrutoga.</b> <br/>
at next day / follow-impfv begin-3sm nom Hyilto obj work / want-impfv-3sm wealth like westerner-pl<br/>
<i> The next day, having learned, Hyilto set to work. He wanted to be rich like the Verdurians.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Va myal kêrba is dye, lifto sitat e šôpada na pôtat-êt ang tope.</tt> <br/>
<b> Va myal kêrba is dye, lifto sitat e šôpada na pôtat-êt ang tope.</b> <br/>
not exist ship trigger 3sm / but make-3sm obj raft and put-3sm-obj.3s to sea<br/>
<i> He did not have a ship, but he made a raft and put it in the ocean. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Tidit e fa topenye, na padyatin ng dye ang vena.</tt> <br/>
<b> Tidit e fa topenye, na padyatin ng dye ang vena.</b> <br/>
capture-3sm obj god sea-of / and caus-return-3sm nom 3sm to house<br/>
<i> He captured the god of the water and made him return to his house.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Myal lê jaha nêbesoy ye vena šô!</tt> <br/>
<b> Myal lê jaha nêbesoy ye vena šô!</b> <br/>
exist very many treasure at house that<br/>
<i> So many treasures were in that house! </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Narnet e jahasoy, lifto pengayê bibakoj ng šretoga-re sapôtat-êt ang šôpada.</tt> <br/>
<b> Narnet e jahasoy, lifto pengayê bibakoj ng šretoga-re sapôtat-êt ang šôpada.</b> <br/>
collect-3sm obj many-thing/ but reside-impfv prevent-3p nom ghost-pl-for.3s put-3sm-obj.3s to raft<br/>
<i> He collected many of them, but the ghosts who lived there would not let him put them on his raft. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Paprôgokoj-re e jaktok na kretverayêkoj-re, Palôdakun ora vo Abaša na kôršol-byo.</tt> <br/>
<b> Paprôgokoj-re e jaktok na kretverayêkoj-re, Palôdakun ora vo Abaša na kôršol-byo.</b> <br/>
call-3p-for.3s obj thief and curse-impfv-3s-for.3s / bring-1p tomorrow for Abaša and kill-3sf-obj.2s<br/>
<i> They called him a thief and threatened him, saying, “We will bring the sea goddess and she will kill you.”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Veran-gô, dimyayêt lê.</tt> <br/>
<b> Veran-gô, dimyayêt lê.</b> <br/>
say-1s-for.2s / frightened-impfv-3sm very<br/>
<i> I tell you, he was exceedingly frightened.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Batêngat e hôkya pan mada. Palôdat vo rupanto, na gardoj ng rupanto e šretoga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Batêngat e hôkya pan mada. Palôdat vo rupanto, na gardoj ng rupanto e šretoga.</b> <br/>
use-3sm obj knowing with father / summon-3sm for monster / and eat-3s nom monster obj ghost-pl<br/>
<i> He used his father’s knowledge. He summoned a monster, and the monster ate the ghosts. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Dêsat ang šôpada pan nêbesoy, lifto piprayê gardoj ng rupanto e šretoga na bêtaj-re.</tt> <br/>
<b> Dêsat ang šôpada pan nêbesoy, lifto piprayê gardoj ng rupanto e šretoga na bêtaj-re.</b> <br/>
enter-3sm to raft with treature / but finish-impfv eat-3s nom monster obj ghost-pl and attack-3s-for.3s<br/>
<i> He got onto his raft with his treasure, but the monster finished eating the ghosts and attacked him.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Lifto tidit ng dêsto e fa tyoranye.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lifto tidit ng dêsto e fa tyoranye.</b> <br/>
but capture-3sm nom man obj god wind-of<br/>
<i> But the man had captured the god of the winds. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Verat, Pyej, takôt e rupanto ngêt!</tt> <br/>
<b> Verat, Pyej, takôt e rupanto ngêt!</b> <br/>
say-3sm / walk / burst obj monster that.near<br/>
<i> “Go ahead,” he told it. “Blow up that monster!”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Pyejet haršô is fa. Sôyat šang na takôtoj ng rupanto.</tt> <br/>
<b> Pyejet haršô is fa. Sôyat šang na takôtoj ng rupanto.</b> <br/>
walk-3s thusly trigger god / blow-3sm much and burst-3s nom monster<br/>
<i> The god did just this. He blew hard and the monster burst into pieces. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Lifto nan takôtoj ng šôpada. Pangayet e ngala ang tope, na va môryoyê diyayêt.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lifto nan takôtoj ng šôpada. Pangayet e ngala ang tope, na va môryoyê diyayêt.</b> <br/>
but also burst-3s nom raft / begin-3sm obj sinking to ocean / and not can-impfv swim-impfv-3sm<br/>
<i> But his raft also burst into pieces. He began sinking into the ocean, and he could not swim.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Padelyêt e hôkya pan mada, na dêsat ang šretafarga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Padelyêt e hôkya pan mada, na dêsat ang šretafarga.</b> <br/>
remember-impfv-3sm obj knowing with father / and enter-3sm to shadow-land-pl<br/>
<i> He remembered his father’s knowledge, and he entered the spirit world. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Lifto va môryoxyê mikyayêt pan dye e šrijasoy, pyejeyêt rami.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lifto va môryoxyê mikyayêt pan dye e šrijasoy, pyejeyêt rami.</b> <br/>
but not can-impfv bring-impfv-3sm obj with 3sm one-thing / walk-impfv-3sm naked <br/>
<i> But he couldn’t take a single thing with him, not even his clothes. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ôtašô lôdat ang vena, sarami an seharpa.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ôtašô lôdat ang vena, sarami an seharpa.</b> <br/>
therefore return-3sm to house sub-naked and sub-TA-beat<br/>
<i> So he arrived back at his hut naked and battered.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Pyejet ang vofa na kôkot, na verat-vên ek im tôrada, na veran-gô.</tt> <br/>
<b> Pyejet ang vofa na kôkot, na verat-vên ek im tôrada, na veran-gô.</b> <br/>
go-3sm to festival and drunk-3sm / and say-3sm-for.1s obj story this / and say-1s-for.2s<br/>
<i> He went to a festival and got drunk, and he told me this story, and I’ve told it to you. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Nyêš, kapan e prin nyêr ang vena ôta šô vofa; ir myal šura.</tt> <br/>
<b> Nyêš, kapan e prin nyêr ang vena ôta šô vofa; ir myal šura.</b> <br/>
see / take-1s obj some date.wine to house from that.far festival / here exist bottle <br/>
<i> Look, I took some date wine home from that festival, here is the bottle.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Comparative">Comparative summary</a></h2>
<red>[This section is mine. Foriy provides some Trêng equivalents but inconsistently. This is by no means a complete guide to producing Trêng or Bhrumese.]</red>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> Yamda</td> <td> Trêng</td> <td> Bhrumese</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Plural</td> <td> <b> ga</b> </td> <td> <b> he</b> </td> <td> <b> ghə / gə </b>after a cluster </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Collective</td> <td> <b> da</b> </td> <td> <b> da</b> </td> <td> <b> dhə / də </b>after a cluster </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Male</td> <td> <b> to</b> </td> <td> <b> to / do </b>after voiced </td> <td> <b> tə</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Female</td> <td> <b> la</b> </td> <td> <b> is</b> </td> <td> <b> lə / la </b>after a cluster </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Diminutive</td> <td> <b> y</b> </td> <td> <b> i</b> </td> <td> <b> čə</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Object</td> <td> <b> soy</b> </td> <td> <b> sôy, mê</b> </td> <td> <b> soi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Place</td> <td> <b> vin</b> </td> <td> <b> ɦin</b> </td> <td> <b> ɦyi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Adj’izer</td> <td> <b> nye</b> </td> <td> <b> nye</b> </td> <td> <b> ti</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Case</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> trigger</td> <td> <b> is</b> </td> <td> <b> mo </b> </td> <td> <b> s / sə </b>before consonant </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> nom</td> <td> <b> ng</b> </td> <td> <b> iš</b> </td> <td> <b> ə</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> obj</td> <td> <b> e(k)</b> </td> <td> <b> ho</b> </td> <td> <b> n / nə </b>before consonant </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> for</td> <td> <b> vo</b> </td> <td> <b> yi</b> </td> <td> <b> ɦə</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> using</td> <td> <b> ba</b> </td> <td> <b> be</b> </td> <td> <b> pə</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> with</td> <td> <b> pan</b> </td> <td> <b> pain</b> </td> <td> <b> bhæ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> to</td> <td> <b> ang</b> </td> <td> <b> ên</b> </td> <td> <b> æg</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> from</td> <td> <b> ôta</b> </td> <td> <b> unda</b> </td> <td> <b> ontə</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> like</td> <td> <b> har</b> </td> <td> <b> he</b> </td> <td> <b> gin</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> why</td> <td> <b> kara</b> </td> <td> <b> kra</b> </td> <td> <b> gharə </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> loc</td> <td> <b> ye</b> </td> <td> <b> že</b> </td> <td> <b> je</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> TA</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> nom</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> obj</td> <td> <b> gyo-</b> </td> <td> <b> go-</b> </td> <td> <b> or-</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> for</td> <td> <b> gê-</b> </td> <td> <b> gen-</b> </td> <td> <b> ɦo / ɦö </b>before I/e </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> using</td> <td> <b> na-</b> </td> <td> <b> be-</b> </td> <td> <b> ko-</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> with</td> <td> <b> na-</b> </td> <td> <b> pan-</b> </td> <td> <b> bhæ-</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> to</td> <td> <b> ngo-</b> </td> <td> <b> un-</b> </td> <td> <b> ngo / ngö </b>before i/e </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> from</td> <td> <b> tya-</b> </td> <td> <b> da-, n- </b>before vowels </td> <td> <b> on-</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> like</td> <td> <b> har-</b> </td> <td> <b> he-</b> </td> <td> <b> gin-</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> why</td> <td> <b> kara-</b> </td> <td> <b> kra-</b> </td> <td> <b> ghar-</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> loc</td> <td> <b> ye-</b> </td> <td> <b> že-</b> </td> <td> <b> je-</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Verbs</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 1s</td> <td> <b> n</b> </td> <td> <b> n</b> </td> <td> <b> n / æ after a</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 2s</td> <td> <b> w</b> </td> <td> <b> y</b> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 3s</td> <td> <b> j</b> </td> <td> <b> ž </b> </td> <td> <b> ž </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 3sm</td> <td> <b> t</b> </td> <td> <b> t</b> </td> <td> <b> dh</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 3sf</td> <td> <b> l</b> </td> <td> <b> s</b> </td> <td> <b> l</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 1du</td> <td> <b> ngo</b> </td> <td> <b> ngo</b> </td> <td> <b> ngo / ægo</b> after a </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 3du</td> <td> <b> jo</b> </td> <td> <b> jo</b> </td> <td> <b> jə</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 1p</td> <td> <b> kun</b> </td> <td> <b> gun</b> </td> <td> <b> kon</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 2p</td> <td> <b> ku</b> </td> <td> <b> gu</b> </td> <td> <b> ku</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> 3p</td> <td> <b> koj</b> </td> <td> <b> gôž </b> </td> <td> <b> kož </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> impfv</td> <td> <b> -yê</b> </td> <td> <b> -iž </b>after ending </td> <td> redup. first syllable </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> remote</td> <td> <b> -ôd</b> </td> <td> <b> -uŋ </b> </td> <td> <b> -l </b>before ending </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> sub</td> <td> <b> sa-</b> </td> <td> <b> se- / s- </b>before vowels </td> <td> <b> i- / ih </b>before vowels </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> causative</td> <td> <b> pa-</b> </td> <td> <b> pa-</b> </td> <td> <b> bha-</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> question</td> <td> <b> kya</b> </td> <td> <b> tôya</b> </td> <td> <b> kæ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> negative</td> <td> <b> va</b> </td> <td> <b> ɦya</b> </td> <td> <b> ɦya</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<h2><a name="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></h2>
<red>[Foriy’s lexicon was small and not always accurate, though it did have Trêng equivalents when he knew them. I am in the process of expanding and correcting it, with the addition of Bhrumese and the Proto-Yamda-Trêng. More words will be available later.</red>
<p><red>Where meanings differ by language, they are separated by •. These are not complete.</red>
<p><red>Bear in mind Foriy’s discussion of roots. If you’re looking for an abstract noun like ‘knowledge’, look for the verb instead.</red>
<p><red>461 words] </red>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> Yamda</b> </td> <td> Trêng</td> <td> Bhrumese</td> <td> P-YT</td> <td> </td> <td> Gloss</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Abaša</b> </td> <td> Abača</td> <td> Abæžə</td> <td> Abača</td> <td> n</td> <td> the sun; the sun goddess</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ak</b> </td> <td> aȟ </td> <td> auk</td> <td> ak</td> <td> n</td> <td> side, direction</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ang</b> </td> <td> ên</td> <td> æg</td> <td> </td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for destination</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aro</b> </td> <td> edo</td> <td> arə</td> <td> aro</td> <td> n</td> <td> city, town</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aša</b> </td> <td> hača</td> <td> hæžə</td> <td> hača</td> <td> n</td> <td> heap, mass; 25
<br/><b>dôn aša</b> 125 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ata</b> </td> <td> anta</td> <td> ætə</td> <td> anta</td> <td> n</td> <td> friend (not close) • T respectful term for strangers</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ba</b> </td> <td> be</td> <td> pə</td> <td> ba</td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for instrument</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> babam</b> </td> <td> babaim</td> <td> pabhæm</td> <td> babam</td> <td> n</td> <td> type of tree</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> baj</b> </td> <td> baž</td> <td> bhaj</td> <td> paj</td> <td> n</td> <td> egg</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bajela</b> </td> <td> baštreya</td> <td> —</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> eggplant [‘egg melon’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> batêng</b> </td> <td> batêng</td> <td> pæteng</td> <td> bateŋ </td> <td> v</td> <td> use, employ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> behir</b> </td> <td> beyir</td> <td> pehir</td> <td> behir</td> <td> n</td> <td> stick; rod</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> behiryeg</b> </td> <td>beyirihe</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> chopsticks (pl.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bembi</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> pempi</td> <td> bempi</td> <td> v</td> <td> bite</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bêng</b> </td> <td> bêng</td> <td> peng</td> <td> beŋ </td> <td> n</td> <td> rope</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bêya</b> </td> <td> bêdya</td> <td> pežə</td> <td> betya</td> <td> v</td> <td> attack</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> biba</b> </td> <td> bina</td> <td> piə</td> <td> bina</td> <td> v</td> <td> prevent, hinder, impede</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> borôj</b> </td> <td> bodôž </td> <td> poroj</td> <td> boroj</td> <td> n</td> <td> woods, forest</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> boti</b> </td> <td> boti</td> <td> pöti</td> <td> boti</td> <td> v</td> <td> stand; stay, persist, remain</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> braha</b> </td> <td> bragya</td> <td> braghæ</td> <td> bragya</td> <td> n</td> <td> horse</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> brelo</b> </td> <td> breyo</td> <td> brelə</td> <td> brelo</td> <td> a</td> <td> dull, blunt; tasteless</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> byera</b> </td> <td> byeda</td> <td> byarə</td> <td> byera</td> <td> v</td> <td> fish</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> byo</b> </td> <td> byo</td> <td> e por</td> <td> epor</td> <td> pr</td> <td> to you (s.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> byôdar</b> </td> <td> byôdada</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> child [‘boy-girl’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> byôr</b> </td> <td> byôr</td> <td> bör</td> <td> byor</td> <td> n</td> <td> boy, son</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> byudo</b> </td> <td> byungo</td> <td> bündə</td> <td> byundo</td> <td> v</td> <td> abandon, leave • B complete</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -da</b> </td> <td> da</td> <td> dhə</td> <td> </td> <td> sfx</td> <td> makes collective nouns</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dara</b> </td> <td> dada</td> <td> tarə</td> <td> dara</td> <td> n</td> <td> girl (pre-puberty), daughter</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dayo</b> </td> <td> dedyo</td> <td> tæžə</td> <td> datyo</td> <td> n</td> <td> back; (v) go back</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dêng</b> </td> <td> dêng</td> <td> teng</td> <td> deŋ </td> <td> n</td> <td> tooth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dês</b> </td> <td> dêš </td> <td> tes</td> <td> des</td> <td> v</td> <td> enter, go in; board (a boat etc.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dêsto</b> </td> <td> dešto</td> <td> testo</td> <td> desto</td> <td> n</td> <td> man, adult male; husband [‘entered (adulthood)’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dêya</b> </td> <td> deža</td> <td> telyə</td> <td> delya</td> <td> n</td> <td> woman • B girl, maiden</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dimya</b> </td> <td> dimya</td> <td> timpæ</td> <td> dimpya</td> <td> v</td> <td> fear, be frightened, scared</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> diya</b> </td> <td> dyia</td> <td> dyiyə</td> <td> dyiya</td> <td> v</td> <td> swim</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dôn</b> </td> <td> dun</td> <td> ton</td> <td> don</td> <td> a</td> <td> large, big</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Dônmaya</b> </td> <td> Dumaža</td> <td> Tonmalyə</td> <td> Donmalya</td> <td> n</td> <td> Iliažë, the largest moon [‘big moon’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> duwa</b> </td> <td> dumya</td> <td> tumyə</td> <td> dumya</td> <td> v</td> <td> should, ought to</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dya</b> </td> <td> dya</td> <td> dæ</td> <td> dya</td> <td> v</td> <td> stuff, pack</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dyam</b> </td> <td> dyaim</td> <td> dæm</td> <td> dyam</td> <td> a</td> <td> wise</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dyasoy</b> </td> <td> dyansôy</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bag, sack [‘stuff thing’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dyati</b> </td> <td> dyati</td> <td> dæti</td> <td> dyati</td> <td> v</td> <td> return, resume, come back</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dyavôr</b> </td> <td> dyaɦor</td> <td> dæbhor</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> foie gras [‘stuff liver’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dye</b> </td> <td> dye</td> <td> dyi</td> <td> dye</td> <td> pr</td> <td> he or she, it</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dyel</b> </td> <td> dyes</td> <td> dyila</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> she</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dyet</b> </td> <td> dyet</td> <td> dyito</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> he</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dyôl</b> </td> <td> dyo</td> <td> döl</td> <td> dyol</td> <td> n</td> <td> pot, bowl</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dyôlyêt</b> </td> <td> dyožêt</td> <td> döljit</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> base of the pot; concolon, toasted/burned part of the food found there</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -eg</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> sfx</td> <td> plural (after consonants)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> e(k)</b> </td> <td> ho</td> <td> n(ə)</td> <td> </td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for direct object</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Elez</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Eleď [V.]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> êm</b> </td> <td> in</td> <td> e</td> <td> ene</td> <td> pr</td> <td> me</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> emyahto</b> </td> <td> gyomainto</td> <td> ginɦatə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> shaman [‘one possessed’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> êt</b> </td> <td> êt</td> <td> et</td> <td> et</td> <td> pr</td> <td> him, her, it</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> êwal</b> </td> <td> emya</td> <td> emyal</td> <td> emyal</td> <td> n</td> <td> tree</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fa</b> </td> <td> ɦa</td> <td> ɦa</td> <td> ɦa</td> <td> n</td> <td> god</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fada</b> </td> <td> ɦada</td> <td> ɦadhə</td> <td> ɦaga</td> <td> n</td> <td> the gods; divinity; Yamda religion</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> far</b> </td> <td> ɦar</td> <td> ɦar</td> <td> ɦar</td> <td> n</td> <td> land, country (cf. -kar upriver)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> farda</b> </td> <td> ɦarda</td> <td> ɦardə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> territory, estate; kingdom [coll. ‘lands’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fê</b> </td> <td> ɦêh</td> <td> ɦa</td> <td> ɦeh</td> <td> n</td> <td> leaf</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> feda</b> </td> <td> ɦede</td> <td> ɦedhə</td> <td> ɦeda</td> <td> n</td> <td> plant</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fêya</b> </td> <td> ɦeža</td> <td> ɦelyə</td> <td> ɦelya</td> <td> v</td> <td> buy, purchase</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fêyin</b> </td> <td> ɦežin</td> <td> ɦelyəɦyi</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> shop, store [‘buy place’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fima</b> </td> <td> ɦima</td> <td> ɦibhə</td> <td> ɦima</td> <td> #</td> <td> four</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fimama</b> </td> <td> himaima</td> <td> </td> <td> ɦimama</td> <td> #</td> <td> eight (alternative form) [dual ‘4’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fir</b> </td> <td> ɦir</td> <td> ɦir</td> <td> ɦir</td> <td> n</td> <td> earth, soil, ground</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> firfarga</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the solid worlds </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> firjo</b> </td> <td> ɦijo</td> <td> ɦirjə</td> <td> ɦirjo</td> <td> n</td> <td> road, route</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> firtôya</b> </td> <td> ɦirtoža</td> <td> ɦirdholyə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> tandoor [‘earth cook’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fise</b> </td> <td> ɦise</td> <td> ɦis</td> <td> ɦise</td> <td> a</td> <td> cold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> faka</b> </td> <td> ɦaga</td> <td> ɦakə</td> <td> ɦaka</td> <td> n</td> <td> duck </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -ga</b> </td> <td> -he</td> <td> ka</td> <td> ga</td> <td> sfx</td> <td> plural</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gakri</b> </td> <td> gakri</td> <td> kark</td> <td> gakri</td> <td> a</td> <td> sour, acidic</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gal</b> </td> <td> ga</td> <td> kal</td> <td> gal</td> <td> n</td> <td> family</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> galto</b> </td> <td> gelto</td> <td> kaltə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> cousin, family member</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gana</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> gana</td> <td> n</td> <td> rye</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ganala</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the rye goddess</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gardo</b> </td> <td> gedo</td> <td> kardə</td> <td> gardo</td> <td> v</td> <td> eat, dine; meal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gê-</b> </td> <td> gen-</td> <td> ɦo, ɦö</td> <td> </td> <td> TA</td> <td> verb marker for beneficiary</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gêgra</b> </td> <td> gêɦra</td> <td> keɦrə</td> <td> geɦra</td> <td> v</td> <td> blood</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gêr</b> </td> <td> gyer</td> <td> kar</td> <td> ger</td> <td> n</td> <td> people</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ges</b> </td> <td> gyeš </td> <td> kes</td> <td> ges</td> <td> n</td> <td> dawn; east</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Gesfar</b> </td> <td> Gyešar</td> <td> Telnor</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Téllinor [‘east land’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gesto</b> </td> <td> gyešto</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> easterner, Téllinorese</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> giyo</b> </td> <td> gyino</td> <td> kiyə</td> <td> ginyo</td> <td> n</td> <td> path, way; travel
<br/><b>hal giyo</b> how, in what way? </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> giyto</b> </td> <td> gyinto</td> <td> kiytə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> traveler</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gô</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> to you (s.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gôkto</b> </td> <td> godog</td> <td> kogtə</td> <td> gogto</td> <td> n</td> <td> whale</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gôro</b> </td> <td> gôtro</td> <td> kotrə</td> <td> gotro</td> <td> n</td> <td> rock, stone</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gyo-</b> </td> <td> go-</td> <td> or-</td> <td> </td> <td> TA</td> <td> verb marker for direct object</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gyopalôto</b> </td> <td> gopalungto</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> guest, invitee</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hal</b> </td> <td> gya</td> <td> gæl</td> <td> gyal</td> <td> pr</td> <td> which</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hala</b> </td> <td> ha</td> <td> halə</td> <td> hala</td> <td> n</td> <td> feather</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> halsoy</b> </td> <td> hamê</td> <td> halsoi</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> what </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> halto</b> </td> <td> hato</td> <td> haltə</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> who, whom</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> har</b> </td> <td> he</td> <td> gin</td> <td> </td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for comparative</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> harpa</b> </td> <td> gyapa</td> <td> gærpə</td> <td> gyarpa</td> <td> v</td> <td> strike, hit; cf. Bisyani rapa</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> han</b> </td> <td> gyain</td> <td> gæ</td> <td> gyan</td> <td> n</td> <td> flat; zer, tortilla, flatbread</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haršô</b> </td> <td> hešôh</td> <td> ginčo</td> <td> </td> <td> adv</td> <td> thus, in that way, like that</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haye</b> </td> <td> haže</td> <td> halje</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> where</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hedar</b> </td> <td> gyedar</td> <td> gyedhar</td> <td> gyedar</td> <td> adv</td> <td> yesterday</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hena</b> </td> <td> hina</td> <td> heə</td> <td> hena</td> <td> v</td> <td> fly</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> heta</b> </td> <td> heta</td> <td> hetə</td> <td> heta</td> <td> n</td> <td> breast</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hege</b> </td> <td> heɦe</td> <td> heɦ</td> <td> heɦe</td> <td> v</td> <td> laugh</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hôkya</b> </td> <td> hôgya</td> <td> hokæ</td> <td> hokya</td> <td> v</td> <td> know, know how</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyan</b> </td> <td> šain</td> <td> hyæ</td> <td> hyan</td> <td> n</td> <td> noble, lordly</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyanfê</b> </td> <td> šainɦêh</td> <td> hyæɦa</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> a pungent leaf, related to basil [‘noble leaf’] </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Hyanjo</b> </td> <td> Šainjo</td> <td> Hyæčo</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the river Hyanjo [‘noble river’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Hyanpyol</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Lord Bone, the primordial god</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyanto</b> </td> <td> šainto</td> <td> (jisto)</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> lord, noble</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyema</b> </td> <td> šima</td> <td> hyebhə</td> <td> hyema</td> <td> n</td> <td> panther, leopard</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyêr</b> </td> <td> šêr</td> <td> hyar</td> <td> hyer</td> <td> n</td> <td> day</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyêt</b> </td> <td> šêt</td> <td> hyet</td> <td> hyet</td> <td> n</td> <td> saffron</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyil</b> </td> <td> še</td> <td> hyel</td> <td> hyel</td> <td> a</td> <td> little, small; few</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyilyil</b> </td> <td> šeže</td> <td> hyelyel</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> couscous (tiny balls of pasta) [‘small-small’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyirin</b> </td> <td> šerin</td> <td> pririn</td> <td> </td> <td> adv</td> <td> soon [‘few hours’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyôro</b> </td> <td> šodo</td> <td> hyorə</td> <td> hyoro</td> <td> n</td> <td> music</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hyu</b> </td> <td> šu</td> <td> hyu</td> <td> hyu</td> <td> v</td> <td> suck; cure (by inhalation)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> im</b> </td> <td> im</td> <td> im</td> <td> im</td> <td> pr</td> <td> this, these; my</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> insoy</b> </td> <td> immê</td> <td> imsoi</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> this thing, these thing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> into</b> </td> <td> into, inda</td> <td> into</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> this person, these people</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ir</b> </td> <td> ir</td> <td> ir</td> <td> ir</td> <td> pr</td> <td> here</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> is</b> </td> <td> iš </td> <td> s(ə)</td> <td> is</td> <td> pt</td> <td> trigger particle • T nominative</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jaf</b> </td> <td> traɦ</td> <td> dhraɦ</td> <td> traɦ</td> <td> n</td> <td> foot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jaha</b> </td> <td> jaya</td> <td> čahə</td> <td> jaha</td> <td> pr</td> <td> every, all</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jahasoy</b> </td> <td> jaymê</td> <td> čahsoi</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> everything</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jahato</b> </td> <td> jayto</td> <td> čahatə</td> <td> jahato</td> <td> pr</td> <td> everyone, everybody</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jahaye</b> </td> <td> jayže</td> <td> čahəje</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> everywhere</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jajo</b> </td> <td> trejo</td> <td> čajə</td> <td> jajo</td> <td> n</td> <td> groundnut</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jaka</b> </td> <td> traka</td> <td> dhrakə</td> <td> traka</td> <td> v</td> <td> steal, rob (victim: vo)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jakto</b> </td> <td> trekto</td> <td> dhrakto</td> <td> trakto</td> <td> n</td> <td> thief, robber</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jang</b> </td> <td> trêng</td> <td> dhræŋ </td> <td> traŋ </td> <td> a</td> <td> strong, powerful; the Trêng people</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jangpôya</b> </td> <td> trêngpoža</td> <td> —</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> mead, alcholic drink made from honey</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jawa</b> </td> <td> jaimya</td> <td> čæmyə</td> <td> jamya</td> <td> v</td> <td> twist, wrap; wear </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jawada</b> </td> <td> jaimyamê</td> <td> —</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> clothes, esp. a wrapped skirt/dress</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jawala</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> (Y slang) chick, girl [‘skirt-f’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jela</b> </td> <td> treya</td> <td> dhrelə</td> <td> trela</td> <td> n</td> <td> melon</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jera</b> </td> <td> trea</td> <td> dhrarə</td> <td> trera</td> <td> n</td> <td> sky</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jerala</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sky maiden, rain goddess</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jeta</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> dhretə </td> <td> treta</td> <td> n</td> <td> fox</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jo</b> </td> <td> jo</td> <td> čo</td> <td> jo</td> <td> n</td> <td> water; river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jona</b> </td> <td> trona</td> <td> dhronə</td> <td> trona</td> <td> v</td> <td> bump, jostle; run into, meet, visit</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jôrye</b> </td> <td> jowa</td> <td> čolyə</td> <td> jorya</td> <td> n</td> <td> tail</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> jôta</b> </td> <td> junta</td> <td> čontə</td> <td> jonta</td> <td> v</td> <td> play, amuse oneself</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> juro</b> </td> <td> trudro</td> <td> dhrunrə</td> <td> trunro</td> <td> n</td> <td> heart</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kakin</b> </td> <td> kakin</td> <td> ghæki</td> <td> kakin</td> <td> a</td> <td> next, following</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kalan</b> </td> <td> kain</td> <td> ghalæ</td> <td> kalan</td> <td> n</td> <td> smoke; fog</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kampe</b> </td> <td> kaimpe</td> <td> ghæmp</td> <td> kampe</td> <td> a</td> <td> black</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kapa</b> </td> <td> kapa</td> <td> ghapə</td> <td> kapa</td> <td> v</td> <td> take, get, acquire </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kara</b> </td> <td> kra</td> <td> gharə</td> <td> kara</td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for reason</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kara</b> </td> <td> kaintra</td> <td> ghætrə</td> <td> kantra</td> <td> n</td> <td> meat, flesh</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> karya</b> </td> <td> kawe</td> <td> ghaly</td> <td> karye</td> <td> n</td> <td> claw</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kawa</b> </td> <td> kawa</td> <td> kabha</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> coffee [V. caua]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kegama</b> </td> <td> keɦaima</td> <td> gheɦæbhə</td> <td> keɦama</td> <td> v</td> <td> fight</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kema</b> </td> <td> kima</td> <td> ghebhə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> hand</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kêng</b> </td> <td> kêng</td> <td> gheŋ </td> <td> keŋ </td> <td> n</td> <td> frittata</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kera</b> </td> <td> keda</td> <td> gharə</td> <td> kera</td> <td> a</td> <td> sharp; spicy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kêrba</b> </td> <td> kreba</td> <td> krebha</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ship [V. kreba]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kita</b> </td> <td> kinta</td> <td> ghitə</td> <td> kinta</td> <td> n</td> <td> horn</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kôko</b> </td> <td> kunki</td> <td> ghonkə</td> <td> konko</td> <td> v</td> <td> drink alcohol, get drunk</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kôkik</b> </td> <td> konkiȟ</td> <td> ghonkik</td> <td> konkik</td> <td> n</td> <td> alcoholic drink made from nutgrass</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kôršo</b> </td> <td> kôčo</td> <td> ghorčə</td> <td> korčo</td> <td> v</td> <td> kill, murder</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kôršoy</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> a magician’s evil object</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> krago</b> </td> <td> kreɦo</td> <td> ghraɦə</td> <td> kraɦo</td> <td> v</td> <td> dig</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kran</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> kran</td> <td> v</td> <td> lie, deceive</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Kranfar</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Hrať [‘kran land’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kranto</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> kranto</td> <td> n</td> <td> liar; a god; someone from Hrať (which is cognate)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kretang</b> </td> <td> kretaing</td> <td> ghretæng</td> <td> kretaŋ </td> <td> a</td> <td> evil</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kretvera</b> </td> <td> kretɦyeda</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> v</td> <td> curse, threaten [‘say evil’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kroša</b> </td> <td> kroča</td> <td> ghrožə</td> <td> kroča</td> <td> n</td> <td> guts, entrails, intestines</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kroškara</b> </td> <td> kročkaintra</td> <td> ghrožačə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sausage</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kruku</b> </td> <td> krukru</td> <td> ghurku</td> <td> krukru</td> <td> v</td> <td> crow; (n) rooster</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ku</b> </td> <td> ku</td> <td> ghu</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> you (pl.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kuda</b> </td> <td> kunga</td> <td> ghundə</td> <td> kunda</td> <td> v</td> <td> burn</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kudye</b> </td> <td> dyega</td> <td> dyedə</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> they</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kune</b> </td> <td> kune</td> <td> næghu</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> we</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kunga</b> </td> <td> môda</td> <td> ghunə</td> <td> kuŋa</td> <td> v</td> <td> sing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kya</b> </td> <td> tôya</td> <td> kæ</td> <td> kya</td> <td> pt</td> <td> question particle</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyaja</b> </td> <td> gyaja</td> <td> kyajə</td> <td> kyaja</td> <td> n</td> <td> favor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyapru</b> </td> <td> gyepru</td> <td> kæpru</td> <td> kyapru</td> <td> n</td> <td> ash, ashes</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyaya</b> </td> <td> gyaja</td> <td> kæghæ</td> <td> kyagya</td> <td> n</td> <td> dog</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyepi</b> </td> <td> gyepi</td> <td> kyepi</td> <td> kyepi</td> <td> a</td> <td> on the right; superior</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyete</b> </td> <td> gyete</td> <td> kyet</td> <td> kyete</td> <td> v</td> <td> grow, expand</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyo</b> </td> <td> gyo</td> <td> kö</td> <td> kyo</td> <td> v</td> <td> give</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyô</b> </td> <td> gyôh</td> <td> köh</td> <td> kyoh</td> <td> a</td> <td> brown</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyôro</b> </td> <td> gyodo</td> <td> körə</td> <td> kyoro</td> <td> n</td> <td> clove</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kyômur</b> </td> <td> gyôhmur</td> <td> köhmur</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> mole sauce [‘browns sauce’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -la</b> </td> <td> -is</td> <td> la, lə</td> <td> la</td> <td> sfx</td> <td> female</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lê</b> </td> <td> lêh</td> <td> la</td> <td> leh</td> <td> adv</td> <td> very, extremely</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> leko</b> </td> <td> leko</td> <td> lekə</td> <td> leko</td> <td> v</td> <td> tie, bind</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lêpo</b> </td> <td> limpo</td> <td> lepə</td> <td> lenpo</td> <td> n</td> <td> tongue</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lêrdo</b> </td> <td> lêdo</td> <td> lardə</td> <td> lerdo</td> <td> n</td> <td> seagull</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lêsa</b> </td> <td> linsa</td> <td> lesa</td> <td> lensa</td> <td> n</td> <td> married woman, mother, wife</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Lêsmaya</b> </td> <td> Linsaimaža</td> <td> Lesæbhalyə</td> <td> Lensamalya</td> <td> n</td> <td> Iliacáš, the second moon</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> leta</b> </td> <td> leta</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n </td> <td> coin; money [V.]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lifto</b> </td> <td> liɦto</td> <td> liɦtə</td> <td> liɦto</td> <td> cj</td> <td> but, however</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ling</b> </td> <td> ling</td> <td> ling</td> <td> liŋ </td> <td> a</td> <td> another, other; more (of something)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lôd</b> </td> <td> lung</td> <td> lond</td> <td> lond </td> <td> v</td> <td> come, arrive</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> luru</b> </td> <td> loru</td> <td> </td> <td> —</td> <td> n</td> <td> grape wine [V. luru ‘red wine’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyapa</b> </td> <td> žapa</td> <td> lyapə</td> <td> lyapa</td> <td> v</td> <td> rain</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyapamikto</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> rain priest [‘rainbringer’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyasa</b> </td> <td> žasa</td> <td> lyasa</td> <td> lyasa</td> <td> a</td> <td> soft</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyasta</b> </td> <td> žašda</td> <td> lyasda</td> <td> lyasda</td> <td> n</td> <td> softness; bed </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyeti</b> </td> <td> lyeti</td> <td> lyeti</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> lentil [V. lëtiy]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyetimago</b> </td> <td> lyetimako</td> <td> lyetimako</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> plaste of lentils, rice, and pasta</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyuga</b> </td> <td> žunga</td> <td> lyungə</td> <td> lyunga</td> <td> v</td> <td> clean, wash</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mada</b> </td> <td> mainga</td> <td> mædə</td> <td> manda</td> <td> n</td> <td> father</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mago</b> </td> <td> mako</td> <td> mako</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> pasta [V. maco]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> manya</b> </td> <td> mainya</td> <td> mæyə</td> <td> manya</td> <td> v</td> <td> sleep</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mawe</b> </td> <td> mainte</td> <td> mænt</td> <td> mamte</td> <td> n</td> <td> nose; (v) smell</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> maya</b> </td> <td> maža</td> <td> malyə</td> <td> malya</td> <td> n</td> <td> moon; a trickster god</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Mayadara</b> </td> <td> Maždada</td> <td> Malyətarə </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Naunai, the smallest moon [‘moon daughter’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mêdo</b> </td> <td> mêngo</td> <td> medə</td> <td> mendo</td> <td> n</td> <td> lake; the Mado people</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mêng</b> </td> <td> mêng</td> <td> meng </td> <td> meŋ </td> <td> v</td> <td> work, cooperate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mikya</b> </td> <td> mingya</td> <td> mikæ</td> <td> minkya</td> <td> v</td> <td> bring; trade (goods)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> miktato</b> </td> <td> mingyato</td> <td> mikæto</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> trader, businessman</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mili</b> </td> <td> mie</td> <td> mili</td> <td> mili</td> <td> a</td> <td> on the left; inferior, lesser</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> milak</b> </td> <td> miêh</td> <td> milyauk</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> north, northern [‘left side (of east)’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Milakro</b> </td> <td> Miegro</td> <td> Myekrə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Miegro, capital of Trêng [‘north town’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> —</b> </td> <td> mo</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> pt</td> <td> object case marker</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mô</b> </td> <td> môh</td> <td> mo</td> <td> moh</td> <td> a</td> <td> near, close</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> môrta</b> </td> <td> môta</td> <td> mortə</td> <td> morta</td> <td> n</td> <td> cup, mug; scoop for liquids</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> môryo</b> </td> <td> mowo</td> <td> molyə</td> <td> moryo</td> <td> v</td> <td> can, be able to</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mur</b> </td> <td> mur</td> <td> mur</td> <td> mur</td> <td> n</td> <td> sauce, juice</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> muret</b> </td> <td> moret</td> <td> moret</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> carrot [V. morut]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> myaga</b> </td> <td> myaɦa</td> <td> myaɦə</td> <td> myaɦa</td> <td> pr</td> <td> now</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> myaha</b> </td> <td> myainha</td> <td> myæhə</td> <td> myanha</td> <td> v</td> <td> possess (of spirits)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> myal</b> </td> <td> mya</td> <td> myal</td> <td> myal</td> <td> pt</td> <td> there is/are</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> myoka</b> </td> <td> myoka</td> <td> myokə</td> <td> myoka</td> <td> n</td> <td> dust</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> na</b> </td> <td> m</td> <td> æ</td> <td> an</td> <td> cj</td> <td> and</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> na-</b> </td> <td> be-</td> <td> ko-</td> <td> </td> <td> TA</td> <td> verb marker for instrumental</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> na-</b> </td> <td> pan-</td> <td> bhæ-</td> <td> </td> <td> TA</td> <td> verb marker for comitative</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nabyo</b> </td> <td> nabo</td> <td> næbro</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ship captain [V. nabro]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nad</b> </td> <td> naing</td> <td> næd</td> <td> nand</td> <td> pr</td> <td> there (far)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naga</b> </td> <td> neɦo</td> <td> naɦə</td> <td> naɦa</td> <td> n</td> <td> mouth; delta; Bisyani nahe</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Nagaro</b> </td> <td> Neɦoro </td> <td> Naɦərə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Naheiro </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nagêt</b> </td> <td> naɦêt</td> <td> næɦet</td> <td> naɦet</td> <td> a</td> <td> stupid, foolish</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nagêto</b> </td> <td> naɦêto</td> <td> næɦetə</td> <td> naɦetto</td> <td> n</td> <td> fool, idiot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nakyu</b> </td> <td> negyu</td> <td> nakü</td> <td> nakyu</td> <td> n</td> <td> leg, arm, limb</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nalo</b> </td> <td> ninlo</td> <td> nælə</td> <td> nanlo</td> <td> a</td> <td> red</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nan</b> </td> <td> nain</td> <td> ænə</td> <td> anan</td> <td> cj</td> <td> also, moreover </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nara</b> </td> <td> nada</td> <td> ngra</td> <td> nra</td> <td> a</td> <td> hot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> narašek</b> </td> <td> nadašêȟ</td> <td> ngračeček</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> hot chocolate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> narga</b> </td> <td> nraga</td> <td> ngraghə</td> <td> nraga</td> <td> v</td> <td> die</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nari</b> </td> <td> nainri</td> <td> nær</td> <td> nanri</td> <td> a</td> <td> far, distant</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> narne</b> </td> <td> nrune</td> <td> ngrün</td> <td> nrune</td> <td> v</td> <td> collect, gather, pick up</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ne</b> </td> <td> ne</td> <td> næ</td> <td> ne</td> <td> pr</td> <td> I, me</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nê</b> </td> <td> nêh</td> <td> na</td> <td> neh</td> <td> n</td> <td> plate, dish</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nêbe</b> </td> <td> nêmbe</td> <td> nemb</td> <td> nembe</td> <td> a</td> <td> fine, fancy, good (quality)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nêbesoy</b> </td> <td> nêmbeda</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> treasure, loot, fine goods</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nêrt</b> </td> <td> nrêt</td> <td> ngret</td> <td> nret</td> <td> a</td> <td> low, lower; short</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Nêrtfar</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> nretɦar</td> <td> n</td> <td> the underworld [‘lower world’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nesa</b> </td> <td> nesa</td> <td> nesa</td> <td> nesa</td> <td> v</td> <td> sell</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nêsto</b> </td> <td> nesto</td> <td> nestə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> male shopkeeper</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nêsla</b> </td> <td> nesis</td> <td> neslə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> female shopkeeper</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ng</b> </td> <td> iš </td> <td> ə</td> <td> </td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for actor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngala</b> </td> <td> nga</td> <td> ngalə</td> <td> ŋala</td> <td> v</td> <td> fall; sink</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngêt</b> </td> <td> ngêt</td> <td> nget</td> <td> nget</td> <td> pr</td> <td> that, those (not far, or near listener); yes; your</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngêtoy</b> </td> <td> ngêtsôy</td> <td> ngetsoi</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> that near thing, those near thing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngêto</b> </td> <td> ngêto</td> <td> ngettə</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> that near person, those near people</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngil</b> </td> <td> ngi</td> <td> ngil</td> <td> ŋil</td> <td> pr</td> <td> there, not far</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ngo-</b> </td> <td> un-</td> <td> ngo, ngö-</td> <td> </td> <td> TA</td> <td> verb marker for destination</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nirta</b> </td> <td> nita</td> <td> nirtə</td> <td> nirta</td> <td> a</td> <td> ready, done</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nôl</b> </td> <td> nôn</td> <td> noln</td> <td> noln</td> <td> pr</td> <td> who</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nông</b> </td> <td> nung</td> <td> nəng</td> <td> noŋ </td> <td> n</td> <td> owl</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nume</b> </td> <td> nume</td> <td> nüm</td> <td> nume</td> <td> v</td> <td> like, appreciate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nuro</b> </td> <td> nudo</td> <td> nurə</td> <td> nuro</td> <td> v</td> <td> want, desire • T also love</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyara</b> </td> <td> yada</td> <td> nyarə</td> <td> nyara</td> <td> v</td> <td> turn, rotate; (n) knee, elbow</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -nye</b> </td> <td> -nye</td> <td> -ti</td> <td> </td> <td> sfx</td> <td> adjectivizer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyêk</b> </td> <td> yêȟ </td> <td> nyek</td> <td> nyek</td> <td> n</td> <td> chickpea; hummus</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyeke</b> </td> <td> yeke</td> <td> nyek</td> <td> nyeke</td> <td> n</td> <td> cloud</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyepa</b> </td> <td> yepa</td> <td> nyepə</td> <td> nyepa</td> <td> v</td> <td> lie down; rest</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyêr</b> </td> <td> yêr</td> <td> nyar</td> <td> nyer</td> <td> n</td> <td> date wine</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyêrto</b> </td> <td> yêrto</td> <td> nyartə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> male barkeeper, wineseller</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyêrla</b> </td> <td> yêris</td> <td> nyarlə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> female barkeeper, wineseller</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyêš </b> </td> <td> yêš </td> <td> nyeč </td> <td> nyeč </td> <td> v</td> <td> see, observe, perceive</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyitu</b> </td> <td> yitu</td> <td> nyitu</td> <td> nyitu</td> <td> n</td> <td> sow (female pig)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyoši</b> </td> <td> yoči</td> <td> nöži</td> <td> nyoči</td> <td> v</td> <td> rub; caress</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyura</b> </td> <td> yuda</td> <td> nyurə</td> <td> nyura</td> <td> n</td> <td> fish</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -ôd</b> </td> <td> -uŋ </td> <td> -l</td> <td> </td> <td> sfx</td> <td> dubitative/irrealis</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ora</b> </td> <td> oda</td> <td> orə</td> <td> ora</td> <td> adv</td> <td> tomorrow; in the future</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ôro</b> </td> <td> odo</td> <td> orə</td> <td> or</td> <td> n</td> <td> nutgrass</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ôrofa</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the god of nutgrass</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> osôd</b> </td> <td> sông</td> <td> ozon</td> <td> osond</td> <td> a</td> <td> real, true • B also loyal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Osônfa</b> </td> <td> Sôngɦa</td> <td> Ozonɦa</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> name of a god [‘true god’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Osônjo</b> </td> <td> Sôngjo</td> <td> Ozončo</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the Osônjo river [‘true river’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ôta</b> </td> <td> unda</td> <td> ontə</td> <td> onta</td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for source</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ôtašô</b> </td> <td> undašôh</td> <td> ončo</td> <td> ontačoh</td> <td> cj</td> <td> thus, therefore [‘from that’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pa</b> </td> <td> pa-</td> <td> bha-</td> <td> pa-</td> <td> pfx</td> <td> causative prefix</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pabyudo</b> </td> <td> byungo</td> <td> bhæbündə</td> <td> pabyundo</td> <td> v</td> <td> exile, send away [‘make leave’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> padel</b> </td> <td> padea</td> <td> bhædelə</td> <td> padela</td> <td> v</td> <td> remember, recall </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pahôkya</b> </td> <td> pahôgya</td> <td> bhahokæ</td> <td> pahokya</td> <td> v</td> <td> teach; report [‘make know’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pafise</b> </td> <td> paɦise</td> <td> bhæɦis</td> <td> </td> <td> v</td> <td> cool, make cold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> palôd</b> </td> <td> palung</td> <td> bhalond</td> <td> </td> <td> v</td> <td> invite, send for, summon [‘make come’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> palôto</b> </td> <td> palungto</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> host; procurer, provider</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pan</b> </td> <td> pain</td> <td> bhæ</td> <td> pan</td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for comitative</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> panga</b> </td> <td> painga</td> <td> bhængə</td> <td> paŋa</td> <td> v</td> <td> begin, start</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> paprôgo</b> </td> <td> paproɦo</td> <td> bhabroɦə</td> <td> </td> <td> v</td> <td> name someone (name is obj)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> papyeje</b> </td> <td> pamyeje</td> <td> bhæpyej</td> <td> </td> <td> v</td> <td> send [‘make go’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> parami</b> </td> <td> paraimbi</td> <td> bharæmbi</td> <td> </td> <td> v</td> <td> strip, make naked</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> parga</b> </td> <td> paga</td> <td> bhargə</td> <td> parga</td> <td> v</td> <td> climb, go up, go upstairs; (astronomy) rise</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pargin</b> </td> <td> pagaɦin</td> <td> bhargaɦyi</td> <td> pargaɦyin</td> <td> n</td> <td> ramp, stairs; dock, pier </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> parta</b> </td> <td> pata</td> <td> bhartə</td> <td> parta</td> <td> a</td> <td> round, curvy, circular</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> penga</b> </td> <td> pinga</td> <td> bhengə</td> <td> peŋa</td> <td> v</td> <td> live somewhere, reside; inhabit</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pêrni</b> </td> <td> prini</td> <td> bhrei</td> <td> preni</td> <td> a</td> <td> dry</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> piga</b> </td> <td> piɦa</td> <td> brhiɦə</td> <td> piɦa</td> <td> v</td> <td> share, divide (food etc.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pipra</b> </td> <td> pipra</td> <td> bhiprə</td> <td> pipra</td> <td> v</td> <td> end, finish</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> piri</b> </td> <td> pitri</td> <td> bhitr</td> <td> pitri</td> <td> n</td> <td> louse</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pôga</b> </td> <td> punga</td> <td> bhongə</td> <td> ponga</td> <td> v</td> <td> sit, sit down • B also judge</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pôya</b> </td> <td> poža</td> <td> bholyə</td> <td> polya</td> <td> n</td> <td> honey; sweetness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> popôya</b> </td> <td> pôpoža</td> <td> bhololyə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> dessert, esp. šôšo layered with honey [redup. of ‘sweet’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pôr</b> </td> <td> pôr</td> <td> bhor</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> you (s.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pôta</b> </td> <td> punta</td> <td> bhontə</td> <td> ponta</td> <td> v</td> <td> put, place, set down</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pral</b> </td> <td> pra</td> <td> bhral</td> <td> pral</td> <td> n</td> <td> salt</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> prapa</b> </td> <td> prapa</td> <td> bhrapə</td> <td> prapa</td> <td> v</td> <td> kiss • B have sex</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> preda</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> preda</td> <td> n</td> <td> clan, extended family</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> prin</b> </td> <td> prin</td> <td> bhrn</td> <td> prin</td> <td> pr</td> <td> some</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> prinsoy</b> </td> <td> primê</td> <td> bhrsoi</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> something</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> printo</b> </td> <td> printo</td> <td> bhrtə</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> someone</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> prinye</b> </td> <td> prinže</td> <td> bhrje</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> somewhere</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> prôgo</b> </td> <td> proɦo</td> <td> bhroɦə</td> <td> proɦo</td> <td> n</td> <td> name, be called (name takes ba)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> prôya</b> </td> <td> pradya</td> <td> bhræžə</td> <td> pratya</td> <td> a</td> <td> old</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Prôyafar</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the underworld beneath Almea</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> prum</b> </td> <td> pyum</td> <td> bhrum</td> <td> prum</td> <td> a</td> <td> bold; nation of Bhrum • T rash</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> puga</b> </td> <td> puɦa</td> <td> bruɦə</td> <td> puɦa</td> <td> v</td> <td> spit</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyeje</b> </td> <td> myeje</td> <td> pyej</td> <td> pyeje</td> <td> v</td> <td> walk, go, move; proceed, operate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyeli</b> </td> <td> myei</td> <td> pyeli</td> <td> pyeli</td> <td> v</td> <td> snow</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyêš </b> </td> <td> myêš </td> <td> pyeč </td> <td> pyeč </td> <td> n</td> <td> ear</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyire</b> </td> <td> myide</td> <td> pyir</td> <td> pyire</td> <td> a</td> <td> yellow, gold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyol</b> </td> <td> myui</td> <td> pöl</td> <td> pyol</td> <td> n</td> <td> bone; body as opposed to mind; spiritual strength</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyolda</b> </td> <td> myida</td> <td> pöldə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> skeleton</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyolyông</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> maize [‘bone-flower’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Pyolyôngla</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the maize goddess</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyôya</b> </td> <td> myunya</td> <td> pönyə</td> <td> pyonya</td> <td> a</td> <td> good</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pyuli</b> </td> <td> myui</td> <td> püli</td> <td> pyuli</td> <td> #</td> <td> two</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rakyo</b> </td> <td> regyo</td> <td> rakö</td> <td> rakyo</td> <td> v</td> <td> love (object takes vo)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rakyoto</b> </td> <td> regyoto</td> <td> raköto</td> <td> rakyoto</td> <td> n</td> <td> (male) lover</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rami</b> </td> <td> raimbi</td> <td> ræmbi</td> <td> rambi</td> <td> a</td> <td> naked, nude, bare</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> re</b> </td> <td> re</td> <td> ri</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> to him/her/it</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rebu</b> </td> <td> rebu</td> <td> rebhu</td> <td> rebu</td> <td> n</td> <td> root, tuber</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rebuda</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ogres, people of the underworld</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rêya</b> </td> <td> rêdya</td> <td> režə</td> <td> retya</td> <td> v</td> <td> serve, do menial work</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rêyla</b> </td> <td> rêdis</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> female servant, maid</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rêto</b> </td> <td> rêdo</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> (male) servant</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rin</b> </td> <td> rin</td> <td> ri</td> <td> rin</td> <td> n</td> <td> hour, part of a day</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rogôl</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> roɦol</td> <td> n</td> <td> magic, sorcery</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rogôlto</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> magician, sorceror, wizard</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rogôlla</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sorceress, witch</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rôpyo</b> </td> <td> rumyo</td> <td> ropö</td> <td> ropyo</td> <td> a</td> <td> new</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Rôpyofar</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> ropyoɦar</td> <td> n</td> <td> the upper earth [‘new world’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rupan</b> </td> <td> rumpain</td> <td> rumpæ</td> <td> runpan</td> <td> a</td> <td> terrifying, horrible</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rupanto</b> </td> <td> rumpainto</td> <td> rumpætə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> monster</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ruva</b> </td> <td> ruɦya</td> <td> ruɦyə</td> <td> ruɦya</td> <td> v</td> <td> hold, carry</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rya</b> </td> <td> wai</td> <td> lyə</td> <td> rya</td> <td> a</td> <td> lovely, pretty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ryaga</b> </td> <td> waga</td> <td> lyaghə</td> <td> ryaga</td> <td> v</td> <td> throw, cast</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ryagiyo</b> </td> <td> waigyino</td> <td> lyalaje</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> garden [‘lovely path’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ryagiyto</b> </td> <td> waigyinto</td> <td> lyalajetə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> gardener</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ryala</b> </td> <td> wala</td> <td> lyalə</td> <td> ryala</td> <td> n</td> <td> girl, young woman • B whore [‘lovely’ + f.]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ryêt</b> </td> <td> wêt</td> <td> lyet</td> <td> ryet</td> <td> n</td> <td> littlewheat</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ryêtto</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the littlewheat god</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ryêye</b> </td> <td> weže</td> <td> lyely</td> <td> ryelye</td> <td> a</td> <td> slow</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ryôjo</b> </td> <td> wojo</td> <td> lyojə</td> <td> ryojo</td> <td> v</td> <td> dance </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> —</b> </td> <td> šam</td> <td> čam</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> electricity [V. šame]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sa-</b> </td> <td> se-</td> <td> i(h)-</td> <td> </td> <td> pfx</td> <td> subordinator</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sam</b> </td> <td> saim</td> <td> sæm</td> <td> sam</td> <td> a</td> <td> great, magnificent</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sambyôr</b> </td> <td> saimbyôr</td> <td> sambör</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> prince [‘great son’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> samto</b> </td> <td> simto</td> <td> sæntə</td> <td> samto</td> <td> n</td> <td> king [‘great man’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Samvurga</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> samɦurga</td> <td> n</td> <td> god of trade</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sandara</b> </td> <td> saindada</td> <td> santarə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> princess [‘great daughter’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sanla</b> </td> <td> saimla</td> <td> sæbhrə</td> <td> samla</td> <td> n</td> <td> queen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Santêpla</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the brightest star, Meme [‘queen star’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sašuro</b> </td> <td> sažuro</td> <td> sajurto</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> governor [V.]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sita</b> </td> <td> sinta</td> <td> sitə</td> <td> sinta</td> <td> v</td> <td> make, craft; acquire by working</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> soy</b> </td> <td> sôy, mê</td> <td> soi</td> <td> soy</td> <td> n</td> <td> thing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šado</b> </td> <td> šingo</td> <td> čædə</td> <td> čando</td> <td> v</td> <td> cut; stab</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šake</b> </td> <td> šainke</td> <td> čæk</td> <td> čanke</td> <td> n</td> <td> one hair, string, thread</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šakega</b> </td> <td> šainkeda</td> <td> čækəgə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> (all of one’s) hair, hide, fur</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šakyu</b> </td> <td> šegyu</td> <td> čakü</td> <td> čakyu</td> <td> v</td> <td> follow; learn, imitate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šang</b> </td> <td> šaing</td> <td> čæng</td> <td> čaŋ </td> <td> pr</td> <td> many, much</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šangto</b> </td> <td> šaingto</td> <td> čæntgə</td> <td> čaŋto</td> <td> pr</td> <td> many people</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šangye</b> </td> <td> šaingže</td> <td> čængje</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> many places, all over</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šari</b> </td> <td> šaintri</td> <td> čætər</td> <td> čantri</td> <td> a</td> <td> fat, heavy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šê</b> </td> <td> šêh</td> <td> če</td> <td> čeh</td> <td> n</td> <td> bird, poultry</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šef</b> </td> <td> šêɦ</td> <td> čeɦ</td> <td> čeɦ</td> <td> n</td> <td> ice</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šêkšêk</b> </td> <td> šêȟ </td> <td> čeček</td> <td> ček</td> <td> n</td> <td> cacao</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šera</b> </td> <td> šeda</td> <td> čarə</td> <td> čera</td> <td> n</td> <td> jam</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šik</b> </td> <td> šiȟ </td> <td> čik</td> <td> čik</td> <td> b</td> <td> lightning; electricity</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šiknê</b> </td> <td> šamnêh</td> <td> čamnah</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> hot plate [‘electric plate’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šip</b> </td> <td> šipto</td> <td> čiptə </td> <td> čipto</td> <td> n</td> <td> farmer, peasant</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> širto</b> </td> <td> širto</td> <td> čirtə</td> <td> —</td> <td> n</td> <td> lieutenant [V. širo + -to]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> širya</b> </td> <td> šerya</td> <td> čerya</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Verdurian beer [V. šerë]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šiwa</b> </td> <td> šimya</td> <td> čimyə</td> <td> čimya</td> <td> v</td> <td> reap, harvest; farm</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šô</b> </td> <td> šôh</td> <td> čo</td> <td> čoh</td> <td> pr</td> <td> that, those (far)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šoga</b> </td> <td> šoɦa</td> <td> čoɦə</td> <td> čoɦa</td> <td> n</td> <td> box, crate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šông </b> </td> <td> šung</td> <td> čəŋ </td> <td> čoŋ </td> <td> n</td> <td> beetle</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šôpa</b> </td> <td> šumpa</td> <td> čompə</td> <td> čonpa</td> <td> n</td> <td> log, trunk</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šôpada</b> </td> <td> šumpada</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> raft [‘set of logs’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šôšo</b> </td> <td> sunčo</td> <td> čončə</td> <td> čončo</td> <td> n</td> <td> a papery reed; phyllo, pastry dough</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šôsoy</b> </td> <td> šôhmê</td> <td> čosoi</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> that far thing, those far thing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šôto</b> </td> <td> šôhto</td> <td> čotə</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> that far person, those far people</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sôya</b> </td> <td> šoža</td> <td> solyə</td> <td> solya</td> <td> v</td> <td> blow</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šray</b> </td> <td> šyai</td> <td> črai</td> <td> —</td> <td> n</td> <td> magic, esp. Verdurian [V.]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šreta</b> </td> <td> šyeta</td> <td> jretə</td> <td> čreta</td> <td> n</td> <td> shadow, shade</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šretafar</b> </td> <td> šetaɦar</td> <td> jretaɦar</td> <td> čretaɦar</td> <td> n</td> <td> the spirit world</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šrêge</b> </td> <td> šingye</td> <td> jreg</td> <td> črenge</td> <td> v</td> <td> split, be divided</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šreto</b> </td> <td> šyêto</td> <td> jretə</td> <td> čretto</td> <td> n</td> <td> ghost [‘shade person’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šrija</b> </td> <td> šiija</td> <td> jərdə</td> <td> črija</td> <td> #</td> <td> one</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šruf</b> </td> <td> šioɦ</td> <td> jruɦ</td> <td> čruɦ</td> <td> n</td> <td> west; Šröy island</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šruda</b> </td> <td> šioɦgyer</td> <td> jruɦə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> westerners; formal term for Verdurians</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šruto</b> </td> <td> šioɦto</td> <td> jruɦtə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> westerner, Verdurian</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šudo</b> </td> <td> šungo</td> <td> čundə</td> <td> čundo</td> <td> a</td> <td> bare; scant; poor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šul</b> </td> <td> su</td> <td> čul</td> <td> čul</td> <td> a</td> <td> bad, wrong</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šulda</b> </td> <td> suda</td> <td> čuldə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> badness; sickness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šulnye</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> a</td> <td> somewhat bad; sick, ill</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šupla</b> </td> <td> šupea</td> <td> čüpelə</td> <td> čupela</td> <td> n</td> <td> wing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šura</b> </td> <td> šudra</td> <td> čunrə</td> <td> čunra</td> <td> n</td> <td> jar, pot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šuta</b> </td> <td> šuda</td> <td> čutə</td> <td> čuta</td> <td> a</td> <td> green; slang term for Verdurians</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taga</b> </td> <td> taga</td> <td> dhagh</td> <td> taga</td> <td> v</td> <td> hunt</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tada</b> </td> <td> tada</td> <td> dhadhə</td> <td> tada</td> <td> n</td> <td> mountain</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Tadaga</b> </td> <td> Tadaga</td> <td> Dadhaghə</td> <td> Tadaga</td> <td> n</td> <td> the Šoruan mountains</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> takôto</b> </td> <td> tekoto</td> <td> dhakotə</td> <td> takoto</td> <td> v</td> <td> collapse, burst; blow up [imitative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> takto</b> </td> <td> tagdo</td> <td> dhaghə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> hunter</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tare</b> </td> <td> tatre</td> <td> dhatər</td> <td> tatre</td> <td> a</td> <td> rich, wealthy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tareda</b> </td> <td> tatreda</td> <td> dhaterdə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> riches, wealth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tarko</b> </td> <td> treko</td> <td> dhrakə</td> <td> trako</td> <td> n</td> <td> skin</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tato</b> </td> <td> tinto</td> <td> dhætə</td> <td> tanto</td> <td> n</td> <td> neck</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> têpra</b> </td> <td> têpra</td> <td> dheprə</td> <td> tepra</td> <td> n</td> <td> star</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Têprala</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> star goddess</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> têyu</b> </td> <td> têdyu</td> <td> dhežu</td> <td> tetyu</td> <td> #</td> <td> 125</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tidi</b> </td> <td> tingi</td> <td> dhidi</td> <td> tindi</td> <td> v</td> <td> find, locate; seize, capture</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tiri</b> </td> <td> tidri</td> <td> dhir</td> <td> tinri</td> <td> n</td> <td> eye • B also see</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> to</b> </td> <td> to</td> <td> dho</td> <td> to</td> <td> cj</td> <td> or</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -to</b> </td> <td> to</td> <td> tə</td> <td> to</td> <td> sfx</td> <td> person; male</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tope</b> </td> <td> tope</td> <td> dhöp</td> <td> tope</td> <td> n</td> <td> sea, ocean</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Topedêya</b> </td> <td> Topedeža</td> <td> Dhöptelyə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the sea goddess [‘sea woman’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Topêro</b> </td> <td> Topero</td> <td> Dhöprə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> chief city of Téllinor [‘sea-town’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tôra</b> </td> <td> tudra</td> <td> dhonrə</td> <td> tonra</td> <td> n</td> <td> sentence, proverb, verse</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tôrada</b> </td> <td> tudrada</td> <td> dhonradhə</td> <td> tonrada</td> <td> n</td> <td> story, tale; poem</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tôya</b> </td> <td> toža</td> <td> dholyə</td> <td> tolya</td> <td> v</td> <td> cook; (n) cooking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tôyto</b> </td> <td> tožeto</td> <td> dholyatə</td> <td> tolyato</td> <td> n</td> <td> cook, chef</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tôyvin</b> </td> <td> tožaɦin</td> <td> dholyaɦyi</td> <td> tolyaɦyin</td> <td> n</td> <td> kitchen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tôt</b> </td> <td> tôt</td> <td> dhot</td> <td> tot</td> <td> n</td> <td> amount; count, sum</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tova</b> </td> <td> tôya</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> adv</td> <td> otherwise • T question particle</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tukre</b> </td> <td> tunkre</td> <td> dhunkər</td> <td> tunkre</td> <td> n</td> <td> belly, abdomen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tya-</b> </td> <td> da-</td> <td> on-</td> <td> </td> <td> TA</td> <td> verb marker for source</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tyaša</b> </td> <td> dyača</td> <td> čæžə</td> <td> tyača</td> <td> #</td> <td> three</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tyašaša</b> </td> <td> dyačača</td> <td> </td> <td> tyačača</td> <td> #</td> <td> six (alternative form) [dual ‘3’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tyora</b> </td> <td> dyoda</td> <td> čorə</td> <td> tyora</td> <td> n</td> <td> wind, breath, air; soul, spirit</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tyun</b> </td> <td> dyun</td> <td> čun</td> <td> tyun</td> <td> pr</td> <td> then, at that time</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tyuyo</b> </td> <td> dyunyo</td> <td> čunyə </td> <td> tyunyo</td> <td> n</td> <td> river snake • Y people smuggler</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> va</b> </td> <td> ɦya</td> <td> ɦya</td> <td> ɦya</td> <td> pt</td> <td> no, not</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Vadmêng</b> </td> <td> ɦyatmêng</td> <td> ɦyatmeng</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> co-op, collective; a parliament and later party [‘work together’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vasoy</b> </td> <td> ɦyamê</td> <td> ɦyasoi</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> nothing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vat</b> </td> <td> ɦyat</td> <td> ɦyat</td> <td> ɦyat</td> <td> adv</td> <td> together</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vaye</b> </td> <td> ɦyanye</td> <td> ɦyati</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> not any, none </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vayto</b> </td> <td> ɦyato</td> <td> ɦyatə</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> no one, nobody</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vayvin</b> </td> <td> ɦyaže</td> <td> ɦyaje</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> nowhere</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Vedura</b> </td> <td> Vaidura</td> <td> Bhedurə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Verduria (official term)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vempan</b> </td> <td> painɦyina</td> <td> bhæɦyeə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> master, paterfamilias [‘with house’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vên</b> </td> <td> ɦyên</td> <td> ɦyin</td> <td> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> to me</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vena</b> </td> <td> ɦyina</td> <td> ɦyeə</td> <td> ɦyena</td> <td> n</td> <td> home, house, hut</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vera</b> </td> <td> ɦyeda</td> <td> ɦyarə</td> <td> ɦyera</td> <td> v</td> <td> speak, talk, say, tell</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -vin</b> </td> <td> ɦin</td> <td> ɦyi</td> <td> </td> <td> sfx</td> <td> place [from vena]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vo</b> </td> <td> yi</td> <td> ɦə</td> <td> </td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for beneficiary</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> voba</b> </td> <td> ɦoba</td> <td> ɦobhə</td> <td> ɦoba</td> <td> n</td> <td> grass</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vofa</b> </td> <td> ɦyoɦa</td> <td> ɦyoɦə</td> <td> ɦyoɦa</td> <td> n</td> <td> holiday, rite, festival [‘for god’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vôr</b> </td> <td> ɦor</td> <td> ɦor</td> <td> ɦor</td> <td> n</td> <td> liver</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vôraro</b> </td> <td> ɦôraraw</td> <td> ɦoror</td> <td> </td> <td> #</td> <td> ten [dual of ‘five’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vôro</b> </td> <td> ɦodo</td> <td> ɦorə</td> <td> ɦoro</td> <td> #</td> <td> five</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vôta</b> </td> <td> ɦunta</td> <td> ɦontə</td> <td> ɦonta</td> <td> n</td> <td> head; boss </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vurga</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> ɦurga</td> <td> n</td> <td> wood</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -y</b> </td> <td> -i</td> <td> čə</td> <td> </td> <td> sfx</td> <td> diminutive</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yago</b> </td> <td> žeɦo</td> <td> yaɦə</td> <td> yaɦo</td> <td> v</td> <td> press, squeeze</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yamda</b> </td> <td> žainda</td> <td> jæmdə</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the Yamda [‘the humans’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yam</b> </td> <td> žaim</td> <td> jæm</td> <td> jyam</td> <td> n</td> <td> person, human</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yana</b> </td> <td> žaina</td> <td> jæ</td> <td> jyana</td> <td> n</td> <td> sand</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yar</b> </td> <td> žar</td> <td> jær</td> <td> jyar</td> <td> n</td> <td> bean, esp. yarbean </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yaya</b> </td> <td> yaža</td> <td> yajæ</td> <td> yajya</td> <td> a</td> <td> wet, moist, liquid</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ye</b> </td> <td> že</td> <td> je</td> <td> jye</td> <td> pp</td> <td> case marker for location</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -yê</b> </td> <td> -iž </td> <td> —</td> <td> -jy-</td> <td> sfx</td> <td> incomplete/progressive</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yêng</b> </td> <td> žêng</td> <td> jiŋ </td> <td> jyeŋ </td> <td> n</td> <td> bread made in a firtoa</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yês</b> </td> <td> žeš </td> <td> jis</td> <td> jyes</td> <td> a</td> <td> high, upper; tall • B also noble [cf. Žesendi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Yêsfar</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> jyesɦar</td> <td> n</td> <td> the physical world, Almea [‘upper land’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yêjo</b> </td> <td> žečo</td> <td> jisčo</td> <td> jyesjo</td> <td> n</td> <td> upper Téllinor, upriver</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yêt</b> </td> <td> žêt</td> <td> jit</td> <td> jyet</td> <td> n</td> <td> base, bottom</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yôka</b> </td> <td> yunka</td> <td> yonkə</td> <td> yonka</td> <td> n</td> <td> seed</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yôn</b> </td> <td> žun</td> <td> jön</td> <td> jyon</td> <td> a</td> <td> sacred, mysterioius</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yônsoy</b> </td> <td> žunsôy</td> <td> jönsoi</td> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> secret; spell, supernatural power</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yông</b> </td> <td> yung</td> <td> yəng</td> <td> yoŋ </td> <td> n</td> <td> flower</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yukre</b> </td> <td> žukre</td> <td> jükər</td> <td> jyukre</td> <td> n</td> <td> worm</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yušaka</b> </td> <td> yučaka</td> <td> yužakə </td> <td> yučaka</td> <td> n</td> <td> year</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
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