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<H1>The Verdurian Language</H1>
<blockquote>
<i>This page contains a brief introduction, a sketch of the essentials of Verdurian, and a helpful chart of inflection for easy reference. There's more... so much more... see the links below.</i>
</blockquote>
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<a href="#intro">Introduction</a>
<br/><a href="#basics">The basics</a>
<br/><a href="#morpho">Morphological summary</a>
<p><b><a href="vergram.html">Reference Grammar</a></b> • Intimidating, but complete
<br/><b><a href="verdict.htm">Verdurian Dictionary</a></b> • All the words
<br/><b><a href="lessons.htm">Practical Course</a></b> • Lessons for learning the language
<br/><img src="new.gif" alt="New!" align="absmiddle"> <b><a href="vermodern.html">Modern Verdurian</a></b> • Updated to 3678
<br/>
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<p><a href="thematic.htm">Thematic Dictionary</a>
<br/><a href="basfahe.html"><b>Basfahe</b>— lower-class speech</a>
<br/><a href="vermodern.htm">Almea+400 terminology</a>
<br/><a href="secret.htm">Terrestrial terminology</a>
<br/><a href="vtexts.htm">Some Verdurian texts</a> • and more at
<a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?searchbox=%3ASfahe">Almeopedia</a>
<br/><a href="subrel.html">Subrel i aksubrel</a> • An extended text in Verdurian
<br/><a href="names.htm">Verdurian Names</a>
<br/><a href="vpoetry.htm">Verdurian poetics</a>
<br/><a href="flash-verdurian.html">Flash cards for <b>Verdurian</b> </a>
<p><a href="kit.html">The Language Construction Kit</a></b>
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<p>© 1997-2018 by Mark Rosenfelder. All rights reserved. Sixth Edition.
<hr>
<h2><a name="intro">Introduction</a></h2>
<a href="Verd-Lang.png"><IMG Align=left width=300 height=200 SRC="Verd-Lang.png"></a>
Verdurian, known to its speakers as <b>soa Sfahe</b>, the Speech, is the language of about 55 million people in the Eretald plain in the southern hemisphere of Almea. The kingdom of Verduria itself takes up about a third of this territory, and is one of the most advanced and powerful states on the planet.
<p>Verdurian is heavily dialectalized, each country and province having its own distinctive way of speaking; it’s fair to say that if you traveled more than about 250 km from Verduria city, you wouldn’t be able to understand the peasants— though you could probably get on with the lords and the shopkeepers.
<p>That is, the dialect of the city, <b>Mažtane</b>, is a lingua franca throughout Eretald, including areas like <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Barakh%FAn">Barakhún</a> and <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Ismahi">Ismahi</a> where the people speak entirely different languages. As Verduria has colonized islands and enclaves around the world— Leán, Karímia, Jebruk, Sitfi, <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?T%E9llinor">Téllinor</a>— it can be said to be one of the first Almean languages of worldwide scope, and its traders and colonists have brought back words from around the world.
<p>It has a rich history of scholarship and literature, so that it is virtually a requirement for the Almeologist. For the same reason it’s been a gateway to the other cultures of Almea: we could hardly have come to understand <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Cuzei">Cuzei</a>, <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Xurno">Xurno</a>, or <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Arc%E9l">Arcél</a> without Verdurian grammars and histories to lead the way.
<p>Verdurian is the direct descendant of <a href="native.htm">Caďinor</a>, the language of the Caďinorian Empire, which flourished two thousand years ago. <a href="bara.htm">Barakhinei</a>, Benécë, <a href="ismain.htm">Ismaîn</a>, and Sarroc also descend from Caďinor. All of these are members of the <b>Central</b> subfamily of <a href="eastern2.html"><b>Eastern</b></a>; thus Verdurian is distantly related to <a href="cuezi.htm">Cuêzi, Curiyan, <a href="xurnash.htm">Xurnese</a>, Čeiyu, and the Naviu and Čia-Ša languages.
<p>By contrast it is not related to <a href="kebreni.htm">Kebreni</a> and <a href="dhekh.htm">Dhekhnami</a> to the east, nor to the Somoyi-Meťelyi languages to the west.
<h2><A name="changes">Changes in the 6th edition</a></h2>
The 5th edition of the grammar is the one that was on the web for over twenty years. Though serviceable, it’s old-fashioned in some ways, and hard to use in others.
<p>This edition is thoroughly rewritten. Sometimes that means removing things that now make me cringe, such as the ancient trope of explaining sounds by going through the alphabet. Other changes:
<ul>
<li>All sentences now include glosses.
<li>There is a good deal of new material on syntax, especially on how features interrelate.
<li>The lexicon now consistently marks valence, and in more detail.
<li>The grammar itself is easier to navigate, and can be displayed on one page.
</ul>
I’ve also made the grammar harder, in a sense: it assumes some linguistic knowledge, and goes deeper on many topics. It saves time not to explain the basics; if you do need the basics, reading the LCK (preferably in print form) or reading the lessons instead should do the trick.
<p>I've removed some material intended to introduce Verduria and Almea, and explaining the relationship to Caďinor; all this is much better explained now elsewhere in Virtual Verduria.
<p><b>Ave drukin soe Sfahei,</b>
<br><a href="contact.html">Mark Rosenfelder</a>
<br>Oak Park, July 2018
<h2><a name="basics">The basics</a></h2>
Let’s be honest: many of you are going to keep reading till you get bored. That’s fine, but I think we’d both prefer that you get a good overall sketch of the language rather than some fraction of the inflectional morphology.
<h3><a name="basicssvo">Sentence order</a></h3>
The normal sentence order is SVO (subject verb object):
<blockquote><b>Soa ceřecoma lü so dalum.
</b><br/>The-f alchemist-f love-3s the-s.acc king-s.acc
<br/><i>The alchemist loves the king.</i></blockquote>
<tt>
A pause to explain the glossing conventions.
<ul><li>A <b>hyphen</b> separarates morphemes, so alchemist-f means that there are two morphemes, <b>ceřecom</b> ‘alchemist’ and <b>a</b> ‘feminine’.
<li>A dot separates meanings within a single fusional morpheme. Thus s.acc means that the ending <b>um</b> indicates singular accusative, and these meanings can’t be separated.
<li>3s means “third person singular”.
<li>To save space, nouns are not marked as m (masculine) or nom (nominative), and verbs are not marked as pres (present tense), unless required for clarity.
</ul>
</tt>
<p>As you can see, Verdurian has a definite article, <b>so</b>. But it has no indefinite article:
<blockquote><b>Ceřecoma lü dalum.
</b><br/>alchemist-f love-3s king-s.acc
<br/><i>An alchemist loves a king.</i></blockquote>
<h3><a name="basicscase">Case</a></h3>
Verdurian has four <b>cases</b>— nominative, accusative, dative, genitive. They’re used as you would expect based on German or Latin. Here, <b>dalu</b> ‘king’ changes to accusative <b>dalum</b> because it’s the direct object.
<h3><a name="basicsgender">Gender</a></h3>
Verdurian is a <b>gendered</b> language: every noun is classified as masculine or feminine. The sample sentence thus tells us that the alchemist is a woman.
<p>Gender normally operates as you’d expect with human referents: <b>dalu</b> king, <b>ceřecom</b> alchemist, <b>maris</b> husband, <b>baraďu</b> brother are masculine, <b>elrei</b> queen, <b>ceřecoma</b> alchemist, <b>cira</b> wife, <b>sädra</b> sister are feminine.
<p>But every other noun is gendered too, without pattern: <b>cuenda</b> f. festival, <b>gunë</b> f. armor, <b>precok</b> m. apricot, <b>cuon</b> m. dog, <b>fulüra</b> f. ink, <b>řusi</b> f. muscle, <b>losu</b> m. moose, and so on. Fortunately almost all nouns can be identified by their dictionary form: nouns ending in a consonant, <b>u, o, y</b> are masculine; those ending in <b>a, e, i, ë</b> are feminine.
<h3><a name="basicsAgreement">Agreement</a></h3>
Adjectives <b>agree</b> with nouns:
<blockquote><b>Soa lerežë ceřecoma done šön fäboš soán dobren dalun.
</b><br/>The-f happy-f alchemist-f gave.past-3s pretty-m.acc painting-acc the-m.dat good-m.dat king-dat
<br/><i>The happy alchemist gave a pretty painting to the good king.</i></blockquote>
And verbs agree with the subject of the sentence in <b>number</b>, singular or plural.
<p>Verbs are also inflected by <b>person</b>: <b>prosai</b> ‘I walk’, <b>prosei</b> ‘you walk’, <b>prose</b> ‘he/she walks’. As person information is marked on the verb, subject pronouns are rarely necessary.
<h3><a name="basicsDative">Indirect objects</a></h3>
The same sentence shows off the <b>dative</b>, used for indirect objects.
<p><b>Object pronouns</b>, either direct or indirect, go before the verb:
<blockquote><b>Soa ceřecoma ilun done šön fäboš.
</b><br/>the-f alchemist-f he-dat gave.past-3s pretty-m.acc painting-acc
<br/><i>The alchemist gave him a pretty painting.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote><b>Soa ceřecoma ilet done soán dobren dalun.
</b><br/>the-f alchemist-f he-acc gave.past-3s the-m.dat good-m.dat king-dat
<br/><i>The alchemist gave it to the good king.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote><b>Soa ceřecoma ilet ilun done.
</b><br/>the-f alchemist-f he-acc him-dat gave.past-3s
<br/><i>The alchemist gave it to him.</i></blockquote>
Note that the painting, being masculine, is referred to using the masculine accusative pronoun <b>ilet</b> ‘him’. There is a word for ‘it’, but it’s only used for things that have no gender, such as sentences.
<h3><a name="basicsNegation">Negation</a></h3>
To <a href="vergram.html#Negation">negate</a> a sentence, insert <b>řo</b> before the verb:
<blockquote><b>Soa ceřecoma iler ilun řo done.
</b><br/>the-f alchemist-f it-acc him-dat not gave.past-3s
<br/><i>The alchemist didn’t give it to him.</i></blockquote>
Other negative words, like <b>nikto</b> ‘no one’, still require the <b>řo</b>.
<blockquote><b>Nikto iler ilun řo done.
</b><br/>nobody it-acc him-dat not gave.past-3s
<br/><i>No one gave it to him.</i></blockquote>
<h3><a name="basicsQuestions">Questions</a></h3>
The simplest form of a <a href="vergram.html#Questions">question</a> is simply to inflect the voice upward. It’s also common (and it’s usual in writing) to use the introductory particle <b>esce</b>:
<blockquote><b>Esce soa ceřecoma iler ilun done？
</b><br/>Q the-f alchemist-f it-acc him-dat gave.past-3s
<br/><i>Did the alchemist give it to him?</i></blockquote>
Interrogative pronouns are, as in English, fronted:
<blockquote><b>Kiom soa ceřecoma ilun done?
</b><br/>what-acc the-f alchemist-f him-dat gave.past-3s
<br/><i>What did the alchemist give to him?</i></blockquote>
<h3><a name="basicsTenses">Tenses</a></h3>
Verdurian has four realis tenses, plus a conditional.
<blockquote>
<b>Šrifao</b>. I know. <br/>
<b>Šrifcao</b>. I knew. <br/>
<b>Šrifcerao</b>. I had known / I knew before. <br/>
<b>Šriftao</b>. I will know.
</blockquote>
That is, there are two past tenses, one being used for events previous to the time being discussed. Compare:
<blockquote><b>Zola nesne im zonán 3467, ac marinerai im zonán 3465.
</b><br/>Zola born-past.3s in year-dat 3467, but marry-past.ant.1s in year 3465
<br/><i>Zola was born in 3467, but I had married in 3465.</i></blockquote>
The conditional is used with <a href="vergram.html#Conditions"><i>if</i> conditions</a>, but also <a href="vergram.html#useconditional">wishes</a>, including those simply introduced with the particle <b>ut</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Ut šrifcelao!</b> <i>Would that I knew!</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="basicsAspect">Aspect</a></h3>
<a href="vergram.html#Aspect">Aspect</a> distinctions are made using adverbs:
<blockquote>
<b>Dénuo prosai.</b> I walk a lot.<br/>
<b>Siča prosai.</b> I’m walking.<br/>
<b>Ya prosnai.</b> I’ve walked (it’s done).<br/>
<b>Núnece prosnai.</b> I just walked.<br/>
<b>Núnece prosmai.</b> I’m about to walk.<br/>
<b>Zaprosnai.</b> I began to walk.
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="basicsRelative">Relative clauses</a></h3>
<a href="vergram.html#Relativization">Relative clauses</a> are formed using the interrogative pronouns.
<blockquote><b>Ihano lü soa frälina.
</b><br/>Ihano love-3s the-f maiden
<br/><i>Ihano loves the girl.</i></blockquote>
<blockquote><b>so suleom ke lü soa frälina
</b><br/>the youth who-nom love-3s the-f maiden
<br/><i>the young man who loves the girl</i></blockquote>
<blockquote><b>soa frälina ket lü Ihano
</b><br/>the-f maiden who-acc love-3s Ihano
<br/><i>the girl that Ihano loves</i></blockquote>
<h3><a name="basicsValence">Valence</a></h3>
There is no passive in Verdurian. There are several ways to defocus or omit the subject of a transitive verb:
<p>Use the reflexive:
<blockquote><b>Soa Sfahe zet mis zdesy.
</b><br/>the-f speech refl-s.acc speak-3s here
<br/><i>Verdurian is spoken here.</i></blockquote>
Use the impersonal pronoun <b>tu</b>:
<blockquote><b>Tu mis soa Sfaha zdesy.
</b><br/>impers speak-3s the-f speech-acc here
<br/><i>Verdurian is spoken here.</i></blockquote>
Use OVS order:
<blockquote><b>Soa Sfaha mis so žen zdesy.
</b><br/>the-f speech-acc speak-3s the people-nom here
<br/><i>Verdurian is spoken by the people here.</i></blockquote>
Increasing <a href="vergram.html#Valence">valence</a>, a causative verb <b>šesan</b> adds an argument to a verb:
<blockquote><b>So dalu šesne mizec soa Sfaha soán kebrenán.
</b><br/>The king cause-past.3s speak the speech-acc the-dat Kebreni-dat
<br/><i>The king made the Kebreni speak Verdurian.</i></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Touristic">Touristic highlights</a></h3>
For connoisseurs of languages and conlangs, Verdurian has a few unusual features:
<ul>
<li><a href="vergram.html#kies">The verbal anaphors</a> <b>kies</b> ‘do what?’ and <b>fassec</b> ‘do that’
<li><a href="vergram.html#prepaffix">Inflected prepositions</a>
<li><a href="vergram.html#Gerund">The future participle</a> (gerund), e.g. <b>lübäm</b> ‘to be loved’
<li><a href="vergram.html#Valence">No dummy subjects</a>: <b>pluye</b> ‘it is raining’; <b>parete</b> ‘it seems (so)’
<li>It’s considered unseemly to use the genitive for <a href="vergram.html#datrel">relationships</a> with superiors, so you use the dative instead: <b>dalu sen</b> ‘my king’.
<li><a href="vergram.html#otherneg"><b>Sul</b> ‘only’</a> requires <b>řo</b> ‘not’: <b>Sul soa sazë řo žanme</b>, ‘only the prince came’
<li>There are ways to signal that a relative clause is <a href="vergram.html#Nonrestrictive">restrictive</a> or not.
</ul>
<h2><a name="morpho">Morphological summary</a> • <a href="vergram.html#Morphology">More</a></h2>
</td></tr>
<tr><td></td> <td>
<p><tt>Verbs</tt>: <b>lelen</b> ‘see’, <b>baďir</b> ‘hit’, <b>elirec</b> ‘live’
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> <td> </td> <td> N</td> <td> R</td> <td> C</td> <td><b>Tense</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 1s</td> <td> <b> lelai</b> </td> <td> <b> baďu</b> </td> <td> <b> elirao</b> </td> <td> Present </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 2s</td> <td> <b> lelei</b> </td> <td> <b> baďeu</b> </td> <td> <b> elireo</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 3s</td> <td> <b> lele</b> </td> <td> <b> baďe</b> </td> <td> <b> elire</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 1p</td> <td> <b> lelam</b> </td> <td> <b> baďum</b> </td> <td> <b> elirom</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 2p</td> <td> <b> lelo</b> </td> <td> <b> baďo</b> </td> <td> <b> eliro</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 3p</td> <td> <b> lelu</b> </td> <td> <b> baďü</b> </td> <td> <b> eliru</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 1s</td> <td> <b> lelnai</b> </td> <td> <b> baďru</b> </td> <td> <b> elircao</b> </td> <td> Past </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 2s</td> <td> <b> lelnei</b> </td> <td> <b> baďreu</b> </td> <td> <b> elirceo</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 3s</td> <td> <b> lelne</b> </td> <td> <b> baďre</b> </td> <td> <b> elirce</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 1p</td> <td> <b> lelnam</b> </td> <td> <b> baďrum</b> </td> <td> <b> elircom</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 2p</td> <td> <b> lelno</b> </td> <td> <b> baďro</b> </td> <td> <b> elirco</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 3p</td> <td> <b> lelnu</b> </td> <td> <b> baďrü</b> </td> <td> <b> elircu</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 1s</td> <td> <b> lelnerai</b> </td> <td> <b> baďreu</b> </td> <td> <b> elircerao</b> </td> <td> Past Anterior </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 2s</td> <td> <b> lelnerei</b> </td> <td> <b> baďreeu</b> </td> <td> <b> elircereo</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 3s</td> <td> <b> lelnere</b> </td> <td> <b> baďree</b> </td> <td> <b> elircere</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 1p</td> <td> <b> lelneram</b> </td> <td> <b> baďreum</b> </td> <td> <b> elircerom</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 2p</td> <td> <b> lelnero</b> </td> <td> <b> baďreo</b> </td> <td> <b> elircero</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 3p</td> <td> <b> lelneru</b> </td> <td> <b> baďreü</b> </td> <td> <b> elirceru</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 1s</td> <td> <b> lelmai</b> </td> <td> <b> baďretu</b> </td> <td> <b> elirtao</b> </td> <td> Future </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 2s</td> <td> <b> lelmei</b> </td> <td> <b> baďretu</b> </td> <td> <b> elirteo</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 3s</td> <td> <b> lelme</b> </td> <td> <b> baďrete</b> </td> <td> <b> elirte</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 1p</td> <td> <b> lelmam</b> </td> <td> <b> baďretum</b> </td> <td> <b> elirtom</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 2p</td> <td> <b> lelmo</b> </td> <td> <b> baďreto</b> </td> <td> <b> elirto</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> 3p</td> <td> <b> lelmu</b> </td> <td> <b> baďretü</b> </td> <td> <b> elirtu</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
</td><td></td><td>
<table>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lelec</b> </td> <td> <b> baďec</b> </td> <td>
<b> elirë</b> </td> <td> Present participle </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lelul</b> </td> <td> <b> baďul</b> </td> <td>
<b> elirul</b> </td> <td> Past participle </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> leläm</b> </td> <td> <b> baďäm</b> </td> <td>
<b> eliräm</b> </td> <td> Gerund </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lelcelai...</b> </td> <td> <b> baďcelu</b> </td> <td> <b> elircelao...</b> </td> <td> Conditional </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lelenai...</b> </td> <td> <b> baďiru</b> </td> <td> <b> elirecao...</b> </td> <td> Imperative </td> </tr>
</table>
<br/><tt>Irregularities</tt><br/>
<table>
<tr> <td> <b>Esan</b> be</td> <td> <b>ai, ei, e, am, eo, eu</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>fassec</b> do</td> <td> <b>fassao, fasseo, <b>fas</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>kies</b> do what</td> <td> <b>kiai, kiei, kiet, kaiam, kaio, kaiu</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>lübec</b> love</td> <td> lübao, lüo, <b>lü</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>mizec</b> say</td> <td> mizao, mizeo, <b>mis</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>šrifec</b> know</td> <td> šrifao, šris, <b>šri</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>žanen</b> come</td> <td> <b>žai, žes, že</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>žusir</b> sell</td> <td> <b>žui, žus, žu</b></td> </tr>
</table>
<br/>Irregular roots: past <b>esan → fu; dan → don; kies → kaiv</b>;
<br/>Future <b>dan → dom; kies → kaim</b>
<p> Past root changes
<ul>
<li> N verbs: <b>c n = sn, č n = dn, d n = zn, g n = žn</b>
<li> R verbs: <b>č r = dr, m r = mbr, n r = ndr, z r = dr</b>
<li> C verbs: <b>c c = sc, č c = šc, m c = nc, s c = š, z c = ž</b>
<li> C+ liquid (<b>l/r</b>), any class > CL<b>i</b> (never stressed)
</ul>
<p>Future root changes
<ul>
<li> N verbs: <b>č m = dm, g m = žm</b>
<li> R verbs: <b>č r = dr, m r = mbr, n r = ndr, z r = dr</b>
<li> C+ liquid, any class > CL<b>i</b> (never stressed)
</ul>
</td></tr>
<tr><td></td> <td>
<tt>Masculine nouns</tt>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> <td> </td> <td> servant</td> <td> animal</td> <td> king</td> <td> spittoon</td> <td> summer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s nom</td> <td> <b> reď </b> </td> <td> <b> dasco</b> </td> <td> <b> dalu</b> </td> <td> <b> katy</b> </td> <td> <b> esta</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s acc</td> <td> <b> reď </b> </td> <td> <b> dascam</b> </td> <td> <b> dalum</b> </td> <td> <b> katim</b> </td> <td> <b> esta</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s dat</td> <td> <b> reďán</b> </td> <td> <b> dascon</b> </td> <td> <b> dalun</b> </td> <td> <b> katín</b> </td> <td> <b> estan</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s gen</td> <td> <b> reďei</b> </td> <td> <b> dascei</b> </td> <td> <b> dalui</b> </td> <td> <b> katii</b> </td> <td> <b> estei</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p nom</td> <td> <b> reďî</b> </td> <td> <b> dascoi</b> </td> <td> <b> dalî</b> </td> <td> <b> katî</b> </td> <td> <b> estai</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p acc</td> <td> <b> reďi</b> </td> <td> <b> dascom</b> </td> <td> <b> dalom</b> </td> <td> <b> katom</b> </td> <td> <b> estam</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p dat</td> <td> <b> reďin</b> </td> <td> <b> dascoin</b> </td> <td> <b> daluin</b> </td> <td> <b> katuin</b> </td> <td> <b> estain</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p gen</td> <td> <b> reďië</b> </td> <td> <b> dascoë</b> </td> <td> <b> daluë</b> </td> <td> <b> katuë</b> </td> <td> <b> estaë</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
</td><td></td><td>
<tt>Feminine nouns</tt>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> <td> </td> <td> frog</td> <td> dance</td> <td> helmet</td> <td> lip</td> <td> lion</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s nom</td> <td> <b> rana</b> </td> <td> <b> lavísia</b> </td> <td> <b> casi</b> </td> <td> <b> leve</b> </td> <td> <b> gurë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s acc</td> <td> <b> rana</b> </td> <td> <b> lavísiam</b> </td> <td> <b> casa</b> </td> <td> <b> leva</b> </td> <td> <b> gurä</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s dat</td> <td> <b> ranan</b> </td> <td> <b> lavísian</b> </td> <td> <b> casin</b> </td> <td> <b> leven</b> </td> <td> <b> guren</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s gen</td> <td> <b> rane</b> </td> <td> <b> lavísë</b> </td> <td> <b> casë</b> </td> <td> <b> levei</b> </td> <td> <b> gurëi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p nom</td> <td> <b> ranî</b> </td> <td> <b> lavísiî</b> </td> <td> <b> casî</b> </td> <td> <b> levî</b> </td> <td> <b> gurî</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p acc</td> <td> <b> ranem</b> </td> <td> <b> lavísem</b> </td> <td> <b> casem</b> </td> <td> <b> levem</b> </td> <td> <b> gurem</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p dat</td> <td> <b> ranen</b> </td> <td> <b> lavísen</b> </td> <td> <b> casin</b> </td> <td> <b> leven</b> </td> <td> <b> guren</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p gen</td> <td> <b> ranië</b> </td> <td> <b> lavísië</b> </td> <td> <b> casië</b> </td> <td> <b> levië</b> </td> <td> <b> gurië</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
</td></tr>
<tr><td></td> <td>
<tt>Adjectives (m f)</tt>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> <td> </td> <td> 1</td> <td> 2</td> <td> 3</td> <td> 4</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s nom</td> <td>- a</td> <td>e ë</td> <td>y</td> <td>ë a </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s acc</td> <td>- a</td> <td>em ä</td> <td>im ya</td> <td>ä a </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s dat</td> <td>án an</td> <td>en</td> <td>ín yan</td> <td>én an </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> s gen</td> <td>ei e</td> <td>ei ëi</td> <td>ii ye</td> <td>ëi e </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p nom</td> <td>î</td> <td>î</td> <td>î</td> <td>ëi î </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p acc</td> <td>i em</td> <td>em</td> <td>om yem</td> <td>óm em</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p dat</td> <td>in en</td> <td>ein en</td> <td>uin yen</td> <td>ëin en</td> </tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> p gen</td> <td>ië</td> <td>eë ië</td> <td>uë yië</td> <td>ëë ië </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
</td><td></td><td>
<tt>Definite Article (<b>so</b>)</tt>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> <td> </td> <td> m</td> <td> f</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> S nom</td> <td> <b> so</b> </td> <td> <b> soa</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> S acc</td> <td> <b> so</b> </td> <td> <b> soa</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> S dat</td> <td> <b> soán</b> </td> <td> <b> soan</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> S gen</td> <td> <b> soei</b> </td> <td> <b> soe</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> P nom</td> <td> <b> soî</b> </td> <td> <b> soî</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> P acc</td> <td> <b> soi</b> </td> <td> <b> soem</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> P dat</td> <td> <b> soin</b> </td> <td> <b> soen</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> P gen</td> <td> <b> soië</b> </td> <td> <b> soië</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
</td></tr>
<tr><td></td> <td>
<tt>Personal pronouns</tt>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> <td> </td> <td> nom</td> <td> acc</td> <td> dat</td> <td> gen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> I</td> <td> <b> se</b> </td> <td> <b> et</b> </td> <td> <b> sen</b> </td> <td> <b> esë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> You s.</td> <td> <b> le</b> </td> <td> <b> eř </b> </td> <td> <b> len</b> </td> <td> <b> lë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> He</td> <td> <b> ilu</b> </td> <td> <b> ilet</b> </td> <td> <b> ilun</b> </td> <td> <b> lië</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> She</td> <td> <b> ila</b> </td> <td> <b> ilat</b> </td> <td> <b> ilan</b> </td> <td> <b> lië</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> It</td> <td> <b> il</b> </td> <td> <b> iler</b> </td> <td> <b> ilon</b> </td> <td> <b> lië</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> We</td> <td> <b> ta</b> </td> <td> <b> tam</b> </td> <td> <b> tan</b> </td> <td> <b> taë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> You pl</td> <td> <b> mu</b> </td> <td> <b> mü</b> </td> <td> <b> mun</b> </td> <td> <b> muë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> They</td> <td> <b> ca</b> </td> <td> <b> cam</b> </td> <td> <b> can</b> </td> <td> <b> caë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Refl s</td> <td> <b> ze</b> </td> <td> <b> zet</b> </td> <td> <b> zen</b> </td> <td> <b> zië</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Refl pl</td> <td> <b> za</b> </td> <td> <b> zam</b> </td> <td> <b> zan</b> </td> <td> <b> zaë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Impers</td> <td> <b> tu</b> </td> <td> <b> tu/tü</b> </td> <td> <b> tun</b> </td> <td> <b> tuë</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
</td><td></td><td>
<tt>Relative and interrogative pronouns</tt>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> <td> </td> <td> nom</td> <td> acc</td> <td> dat</td> <td> gen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Who s</td> <td> <b> ke</b> </td> <td> <b> ket</b> </td> <td> <b> ken</b> </td> <td> <b> kë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Who pl</td> <td> <b> kaë</b> </td> <td> <b> kaëm</b> </td> <td> <b> kaën</b> </td> <td> <b> kaëne</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> What</td> <td> <b> kio</b> </td> <td> <b> kiom</b> </td> <td> <b> kion</b> </td> <td> <b> kiei</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> This</td> <td> <b> eto</b> </td> <td> <b> eto</b> </td> <td> <b> eton</b> </td> <td> <b> etë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> That</td> <td> <b> tot</b> </td> <td> <b> tot</b> </td> <td> <b> totán</b> </td> <td> <b> totë</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Nothing</td> <td> <b> niš </b> </td> <td> <b> niš </b> </td> <td> <b> nišán</b> </td> <td> <b> nišei</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Everyone</td> <td> <b> fsya</b> </td> <td> <b> fsya</b> </td> <td> <b> fsyan</b> </td> <td> <b> fsye</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Everything</td> <td> <b> fsë</b> </td> <td> <b> fsë</b> </td> <td> <b> fsën</b> </td> <td> <b> fsëi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Where</td> <td> <b> ktë</b> </td> <td> <b> ktë</b> </td> <td> <b> ktën</b> </td> <td> <b> ktëi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> Here</td> <td> <b> zdesy</b> </td> <td> <b> zdesy</b> </td> <td> <b> zdesín</b> </td> <td> <b> zdesii</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#C0E0C0"> There</td> <td> <b> cečel</b> </td> <td> <b> cečel</b> </td> <td> <b> cečelán</b> </td> <td> <b> cečelei</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<hr>
</td>
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