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<HTML> <HEAD><TITLE>Proto-Ranic</TITLE></HEAD> <BODY BGCOLOR="#B0B0D0"><IMG Align=Top SRC="vermap.gif"> <H2>Proto-Ranic</H2> <hr> I think this is about as far as I'm going to take this. I've spent about two weeks on it, and though I'm sure I could go farther, it's at a good breaking point and it's getting in the way of other projects. <p>I'm afraid I skipped over all the grammars, concentrating only on the lexicon. <p>For reference, the full names of the languages and their creators: <ul> <li>Proto-Isles - Ran <li>Thoktunèhotà - Legion <li>Mûtsipsa' - Rory <li>Máotatšàli - kolyn <li>Zele - brandrinn </ul> The first stage was to collect cognates. You folks didn't make this very difficult. :) I was a good deal meaner with Fáralo: I probably changed the meanings of a third to a half of the vocabulary. Even that probably doesn't reflect the level of meaning change in a natlang. <p>I respelled the words as I was copying them, partly to downplay dissimilarities due to different spelling conventions, but mostly so I could use my Maraille font throughout. Maraille doesn't have àèìòù, which is why these become āēīōū in Mao. It also doesn't have æ, so I wrote ae instead. This may have been a mistake, since it makes it look too much like ao. <p>I also put aside the net of borrowings that you all worked so hard on. :) A few came in anyway and caused some trouble. <p>The next stage was to analyze initial consonants, then medials, then vowels, looking for correspondence sets. <p>Next, I looked through the correspondence sets, seeing if they could be related, and assigning proto-phonemes. <p>Then, I went through the initials/medials/vowels again, comparing the cognate sets to the reconstructed forms; this is where things started to feel like they were coming together. <p>Below you can see my spreadsheets, with the reconstructed forms. With each correspondence set I put the reconstruction and sound changes, and I've added some notes on my reasoning. <p><h3><font color="#0000ff">Initials</font></h3> <h4><font color="#0000ff">Initial vowel</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>ENGLISH</td> <td>THOK</td> <td>MUTS</td> <td>MAO</td> <td>ZELE</td> <td>PROTO</td> <td>CHANGES</td> <td>CHINESE</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ear</td> <td>itta</td> <td><u>?</u>ita</td> <td>īzā</td> <td></td> <td>ida</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lead (vb)</td> <td>îtte</td> <td>iinda</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>īndä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>night</td> <td>utta</td> <td>ûta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>uda</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>1s</td> <td>a</td> <td></td> <td>aē</td> <td></td> <td>ey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smell</td> <td>îhe</td> <td></td> <td>īošy</td> <td></td> <td>imši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>and</td> <td>u</td> <td></td> <td>y`</td> <td></td> <td>ü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>blow</td> <td>une</td> <td></td> <td>unu</td> <td></td> <td>unu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>breath, wind</td> <td>uhiphi</td> <td></td> <td>ūšipí</td> <td>roazh ?</td> <td>ušipi</td> <td></td> <td>huxi</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>carry</td> <td>upe</td> <td></td> <td>āopy`</td> <td></td> <td>uwp?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>chest</td> <td>mpu</td> <td></td> <td>āopú</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>never</td> <td>uhôhap</td> <td></td> <td>ūúšae</td> <td></td> <td>uhušay</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smooth</td> <td>ûhamyu</td> <td></td> <td>isāmīo</td> <td></td> <td>üsamyu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>strong</td> <td>unî</td> <td></td> <td>āonyš</td> <td></td> <td>uwni</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>thin</td> <td>ume</td> <td></td> <td>ūma</td> <td></td> <td>umä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>throat</td> <td>wî</td> <td></td> <td>āowyš</td> <td></td> <td>wiš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>...</td> <td>...</td> <td>0</td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Most of these probably actually start with *s or *š, but since we don't have Muts or Zele cognates I can't tell. It doesn't look like the protolanguage had many initial-vowel words, possibly none. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Velars *k, *g</font></h4><b></b> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>some</td> <td></td> <td>gimsuh</td> <td>giusūš</td> <td>neafuri</td> <td>gimsuh</td> <td>Thok g → k</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bone</td> <td>ku</td> <td>gu</td> <td>gú</td> <td></td> <td>gu</td> <td>Thok g → kh / _i</td> <td>gu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>root</td> <td>kunam</td> <td>guuna</td> <td>gunao</td> <td></td> <td>gūnam</td> <td></td> <td>genben</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lie down, rest</td> <td>komô</td> <td>gwuh</td> <td>gaomūš</td> <td></td> <td>gomuš</td> <td>Zele g → y / _i</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>love</td> <td>khîṫe</td> <td>ktsan</td> <td>gitšaē</td> <td>yizã</td> <td>gitzan</td> <td>Zele g → h otherwise?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fly</td> <td>kome</td> <td></td> <td>gaomā</td> <td>home</td> <td>gomä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>k</td> <td>g</td> <td>g</td> <td>h, y, n</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bite</td> <td>kâ</td> <td>kajoh</td> <td>kalāoš</td> <td></td> <td>káyaw</td> <td>Thok k → kh / _i</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mountain</td> <td></td> <td>ke</td> <td>kae</td> <td></td> <td>key</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hill</td> <td></td> <td>kejdi</td> <td>kaezí</td> <td></td> <td>keydi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>steal</td> <td></td> <td>kejpuns</td> <td>kaépyš</td> <td></td> <td>keypuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>new</td> <td>kahake</td> <td>khaxa<u>?</u></td> <td>kašága</td> <td></td> <td>kašageh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hand, year</td> <td></td> <td>ksah</td> <td>kazāš</td> <td></td> <td>kazaš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>horn</td> <td></td> <td>ku</td> <td>kú</td> <td></td> <td>ku</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>winter</td> <td>kû</td> <td>ku<u>?</u>û</td> <td>kulú</td> <td></td> <td>kuyu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>crops</td> <td>kôhi</td> <td>kuhsi</td> <td>kus</td> <td></td> <td>kussi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spirit</td> <td>kwi</td> <td>kuu</td> <td>ky`</td> <td></td> <td>kwe</td> <td></td> <td>gui</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>herd</td> <td>kuni</td> <td>kuunii</td> <td>kylí</td> <td></td> <td>kūnyī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>nut, seed</td> <td>kuxî</td> <td>kxam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kumC</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>brother</td> <td>kakam</td> <td>kxan</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kakam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>month, moon</td> <td>kyumi</td> <td>kyywi</td> <td>kiomi</td> <td></td> <td>kyumi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mouth</td> <td>ka</td> <td></td> <td>kāoš</td> <td></td> <td>kaw</td> <td></td> <td>kou</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fall</td> <td>kaheṫe</td> <td></td> <td>kašaētīo</td> <td></td> <td>kašeyt-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>suck</td> <td>kapâ</td> <td></td> <td>kamá</td> <td></td> <td>kabá</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>four</td> <td>kata</td> <td></td> <td>kazā</td> <td></td> <td>kada</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>five</td> <td>katâhi</td> <td></td> <td>azāš</td> <td></td> <td>kada-ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>six</td> <td>katâhihwi</td> <td></td> <td>zāšys</td> <td></td> <td>kada-šišwe</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>seven</td> <td>katâṫe</td> <td></td> <td>kataé</td> <td></td> <td>kada-tey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eight</td> <td>katâṫyu</td> <td></td> <td>(īka)</td> <td></td> <td>kada-dyu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>nine</td> <td>katâṫîhi</td> <td></td> <td>āgazāš</td> <td></td> <td>kada-di-ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ten</td> <td>katâṫîhihwi</td> <td></td> <td>gašys</td> <td></td> <td>kada-di-šišwe</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eleven</td> <td>katâṫîṫe</td> <td></td> <td>zātaé</td> <td></td> <td>kada-di-tey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cold</td> <td>kuṫyô</td> <td></td> <td>kutšūlū</td> <td>kuzeyu</td> <td>kutzuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>temple</td> <td>kuha</td> <td></td> <td>kūpas</td> <td></td> <td>kupa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>priest</td> <td>kuhu</td> <td></td> <td>kū</td> <td></td> <td>kuhu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>woman</td> <td>khîphî</td> <td>kiispy</td> <td>kispio</td> <td></td> <td>kīspü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>light</td> <td>khikîtû</td> <td></td> <td>kigiozi</td> <td></td> <td>kigüdü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>follow</td> <td>xêṫe</td> <td>kanta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kant-</td> <td>Thok k → x / _FCC</td> <td>gensui ?</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>man</td> <td>xêma</td> <td>kemma</td> <td>kaomao 'husband'</td> <td>kemmaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>heavy</td> <td>xemîtû</td> <td></td> <td>kaemiozī</td> <td></td> <td>keymītü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>x</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>As you can see, reconstructing *k is straightforward. *g is almost as easy-- it's preserved in two languages, and Zele's g → y suggests a voiced sound. So there wasn't much warrant to worry about other possible constrasts, such as aspiration. (Thok does have an aspiration constrast, but it's pretty clearly conditioned by the following vowel.) <p>I'm not sure what's going on with Thok's x— it seems to occur only in checked syllables with front vowels, but there's not really enough instances to be sure. <p>Say, how did Chinese get there? I noticed a few glaring borrowings, notably <i>mao</i> and <i>kou</i>. So I looked up every word to see if there were more. I'm sure I missed more. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Nasals *m, *n</font></h4><b></b> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>wheat</td> <td>mâta</td> <td>mata</td> <td>máza</td> <td>matazh</td> <td>máda</td> <td>no changes!</td> <td>-</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fur</td> <td>ma</td> <td>me</td> <td>mao</td> <td></td> <td>maw</td> <td></td> <td>mao</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hear, listen</td> <td>mîṫe</td> <td>mets</td> <td>matsīo</td> <td>mesea</td> <td>metsew</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flax</td> <td>maṫi</td> <td>metsi</td> <td>matsi</td> <td></td> <td>metsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>small</td> <td>mimatû</td> <td>mi</td> <td>mī</td> <td></td> <td>mi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tail</td> <td>mipa</td> <td>mifa</td> <td>mipā</td> <td></td> <td>mipa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>rain</td> <td>mim</td> <td>mii</td> <td>mio</td> <td></td> <td>mīm</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>family</td> <td></td> <td>miintsu</td> <td>mytsú</td> <td>measuhi</td> <td>mīntsu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sheep</td> <td>mima</td> <td>miiwa</td> <td>mima</td> <td>mimazhi</td> <td>mīma</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>water</td> <td>mîkhi</td> <td>mimki</td> <td>miogí</td> <td>meakihi</td> <td>mimki</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eye</td> <td>mu</td> <td>mu</td> <td>mú</td> <td></td> <td>mu</td> <td></td> <td>-</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>clothes</td> <td>mwipa</td> <td>mûfa</td> <td>mupā</td> <td>mepazh</td> <td>mwepa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>argue</td> <td>mwitâ</td> <td>mûsa<u>?</u></td> <td>mutá</td> <td></td> <td>mwetah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>think</td> <td>mwîṫû</td> <td>mûtsi<u>?</u></td> <td>mutsí</td> <td></td> <td>mwetsü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mushroom</td> <td>muhu</td> <td>muuhu</td> <td>mú</td> <td></td> <td>mūšu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mother</td> <td>mama</td> <td>mwa</td> <td>ma</td> <td></td> <td>mama</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>grass</td> <td>minam</td> <td>mwina</td> <td>mināo</td> <td>minam</td> <td>minam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sit</td> <td>mome</td> <td>mwun</td> <td>maomy`</td> <td></td> <td>momun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>face</td> <td>myumyu</td> <td>mywyh</td> <td>miomīoš</td> <td></td> <td>myumyus</td> <td></td> <td>mian</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>m</td> <td>m</td> <td>m</td> <td>m</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>person</td> <td>nam</td> <td>na</td> <td>nao</td> <td>nam</td> <td>nam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>autumn</td> <td>nahupu</td> <td>nesufu</td> <td>nasumú</td> <td></td> <td>nesubu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>do</td> <td>ne 'be'</td> <td>ni</td> <td>ni</td> <td></td> <td>nï</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spring</td> <td>nihipa</td> <td>niisifa</td> <td>nizipá</td> <td></td> <td>nīzipa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>green</td> <td>nime</td> <td>nin</td> <td>nināo</td> <td>nã</td> <td>ninen</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>want</td> <td>nittû</td> <td>nit</td> <td>nizīo</td> <td></td> <td>nidu-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>summer</td> <td></td> <td>nofa</td> <td>naomaē</td> <td></td> <td>nobäy</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sew</td> <td>nwihe</td> <td>nûs</td> <td>nusīo</td> <td></td> <td>nwese</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cow</td> <td>nona</td> <td>nynoh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>non?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>give</td> <td></td> <td>nysa<u>?</u></td> <td>niotá</td> <td></td> <td>nyuta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>turn</td> <td>nattô</td> <td></td> <td>nazāo</td> <td></td> <td>nadaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>noodle</td> <td>nayu</td> <td></td> <td>nalū</td> <td></td> <td>nayu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tie</td> <td>nû</td> <td></td> <td>nuwī</td> <td></td> <td>nuwi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pull</td> <td>nyô</td> <td></td> <td>nizīo</td> <td></td> <td>nidum ?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>No mysteries with *m or *n. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Approximants *y, *w</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>drink</td> <td></td> <td>i</td> <td>lio</td> <td></td> <td>yi</td> <td>Thok y → 0</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pine</td> <td></td> <td>jasuwy</td> <td>lásuwy</td> <td></td> <td>yasuwi</td> <td>Muts y → j, û before u</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>black</td> <td>uttû</td> <td>juuti<u>?</u></td> <td>ludī</td> <td></td> <td>yūdih</td> <td>Mao y → l</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>rice</td> <td>nyaki</td> <td>njax</td> <td>lāgī</td> <td></td> <td>yagi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>kick</td> <td></td> <td>û</td> <td>lū</td> <td></td> <td>yu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>deer</td> <td>uka</td> <td>ûxa</td> <td>lukā 'reindeer'</td> <td>yuka</td> <td></td> <td>lu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>feather</td> <td>uma</td> <td></td> <td>lumāo</td> <td></td> <td>yumaw</td> <td></td> <td>yumao</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fear</td> <td>ohe</td> <td>joh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>yoše</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>0</td> <td>nj, j, 0</td> <td>l</td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>if</td> <td></td> <td><u>?</u>wu<u>?</u></td> <td>ūmú</td> <td></td> <td>wumuh</td> <td>Thok w → 0</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>earth, dirt</td> <td>uhî</td> <td>uuho<u>?</u>o</td> <td>wušāowá</td> <td></td> <td>wūšowo</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flow</td> <td></td> <td>uunsa</td> <td>wysāo</td> <td></td> <td>wūnsaw</td> <td>Muts w → u / _u</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>star</td> <td>uni</td> <td>wejnih</td> <td>waniš</td> <td>benir</td> <td>weniš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bad</td> <td>an</td> <td>wen</td> <td>wanu</td> <td>van</td> <td>wen</td> <td>Zele w → b (/ v)</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wolf</td> <td>wîhî</td> <td>wiatsu</td> <td>wíatsū</td> <td>boabun</td> <td>wihatsü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>freeze</td> <td></td> <td>wûwi<u>?</u></td> <td>wumí</td> <td></td> <td>wumih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>dig</td> <td>ahô</td> <td>ys</td> <td>wīs</td> <td></td> <td>wüs</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>garden</td> <td>îčî</td> <td></td> <td>wyty</td> <td></td> <td>wintü</td> <td></td> <td>(yin)dao</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>dog</td> <td>îhî</td> <td></td> <td>wyš</td> <td></td> <td>wuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>0, w</td> <td>w, 0</td> <td>w</td> <td>b, v</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>The first set is a puzzler. Muts is a big mess; no help from Zele— I reconstructed *l at first, and this is certainly defensible. Mandarin <i>yumao </i>was too big a clue, though, and it helped point out that the normal Muts reflex is also y. (As well, if there's a *w, it seems likely that *y would exist too.) <p>'Rice' doesn't fit in much and I suspect it's a borrowing. <p>*w was easier, since it's retained in two languages, and in three medially. <p>'Wolf' is just a mess wherever it shows up. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Labials *p</font></h4><b></b> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>hair</td> <td></td> <td>pa</td> <td>pá</td> <td></td> <td>pa</td> <td>Thok p → f / _ï</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>beautiful</td> <td>ipa</td> <td>pa<u>?</u>a</td> <td>palā</td> <td></td> <td>paya</td> <td>Thok p → ph / _ī,u, ü</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sand</td> <td></td> <td>pah</td> <td>pāš</td> <td>par</td> <td>paš</td> <td></td> <td>Ind. pasir</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>few</td> <td>pimô</td> <td>piiwu</td> <td>pimu</td> <td></td> <td>pīmuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>house</td> <td>nêpaha</td> <td>psa</td> <td>pasaē</td> <td></td> <td>pasay</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>say</td> <td>ôtâ (?)</td> <td>psa<u>?</u></td> <td>pazá</td> <td>pota</td> <td>podah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>long</td> <td></td> <td>psoh</td> <td>pusāoš</td> <td></td> <td>pusaws</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>breast, chest</td> <td>pômî</td> <td>puhmun</td> <td>pušmyš</td> <td></td> <td>pušmin</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fish</td> <td>pumu</td> <td>pwu</td> <td>pumy`</td> <td></td> <td>pumu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>many</td> <td>pomî</td> <td>pwun</td> <td>paomy</td> <td></td> <td>pomü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>but</td> <td>pahu</td> <td>py<u>?</u>o<u>?</u></td> <td>wū</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>climb</td> <td>pâhâ</td> <td></td> <td>pasaēš</td> <td></td> <td>pasay</td> <td></td> <td>pa</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>call</td> <td>pyutâ</td> <td></td> <td>piotá</td> <td></td> <td>pyutá</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>brother</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>púaswī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>arm</td> <td>fêpam</td> <td>piipaw</td> <td>pípao</td> <td></td> <td>pïmpam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>back</td> <td>fêpu</td> <td></td> <td>pípū</td> <td>pibuzh</td> <td>pïmpu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>nose</td> <td>phîṫi</td> <td>piitsi</td> <td>pitší</td> <td></td> <td>pītzi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sow</td> <td>phîṫâ</td> <td>ptsun</td> <td>putsyš</td> <td></td> <td>putsun</td> <td></td> <td>bozhong</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>skin</td> <td>phînî</td> <td>puunnis</td> <td>pynis</td> <td></td> <td>pūnnis</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td>p</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Not much to see here. I reconstructed *b medially, but can't find any evidence for it initially. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Sibilants *s, *š</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>shine</td> <td>čîmâ</td> <td>hap</td> <td>āma</td> <td></td> <td>šama</td> <td>Thok š → 0</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>laugh</td> <td>hihe</td> <td>haxih</td> <td>āšišā</td> <td></td> <td>šašïše</td> <td></td> <td>(xiao)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>happy</td> <td>ku</td> <td>hex</td> <td>āku</td> <td></td> <td>šeku</td> <td>Muts š → h</td> <td>(yukuai, xingfu)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flower</td> <td>onam</td> <td>hjona</td> <td>ālaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>šayonam</td> <td></td> <td>Jp. hana?</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>horse</td> <td>uha</td> <td>hyha</td> <td>āoša</td> <td></td> <td>šuwša</td> <td>Mao š → 0 + length on a</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cliff</td> <td></td> <td>hemna</td> <td>aoná</td> <td></td> <td>šemna</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>live</td> <td>ixe</td> <td>hexa</td> <td>aēkā</td> <td>reke</td> <td>šeykä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fox</td> <td>wiṫî</td> <td>hu<u>?</u>ytsim</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>šwetsim</td> <td></td> <td>(huli)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>kill</td> <td>wihâ</td> <td>hûsam</td> <td>ysaoš</td> <td></td> <td>šwesa</td> <td></td> <td>shasi</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>young</td> <td>uhu</td> <td>huuhu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>šūhu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>die</td> <td>wime</td> <td>hwun</td> <td>ymy</td> <td>remoa</td> <td>šwemo</td> <td></td> <td>xiaomo</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>often</td> <td>ihehyô</td> <td></td> <td>aešae</td> <td>rer</td> <td>šeysu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>red</td> <td>(pe)</td> <td>hafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āmā</td> <td>rapa</td> <td>šabeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sun, day, east</td> <td>(pa)</td> <td>hefa</td> <td>āma</td> <td>rabazhi</td> <td>šeba</td> <td></td> <td>ri</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>west</td> <td>(phî)</td> <td>hefa<u>?</u>ii</td> <td></td> <td>rababuhi</td> <td>šebahī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fire</td> <td></td> <td>hefatsa</td> <td>amatsá</td> <td>rabasahi</td> <td>šebatse</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hot</td> <td>(paṫû)</td> <td>hefatsi<u>?</u></td> <td>āmatsi</td> <td>rabasi</td> <td>šebatsih</td> <td></td> <td>re</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>warm</td> <td>(kape)</td> <td>hexafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āgamā</td> <td>ragapa</td> <td>šegabeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>heart</td> <td>im</td> <td></td> <td>īo</td> <td></td> <td>šim</td> <td></td> <td>xin</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>two</td> <td>ihwi</td> <td></td> <td>īšys</td> <td></td> <td>šišwe</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>0</td> <td>h</td> <td>:</td> <td>r</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>good</td> <td></td> <td><u>?</u>i</td> <td>ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Not enough to base s.t. on</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eat</td> <td></td> <td>si<u>?</u></td> <td>ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>chi</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>beetle</td> <td></td> <td>sosiwi</td> <td>šūšípi</td> <td>foshibi 'locust</td> <td></td> <td>Can't be cognates, medials </td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>don't fit. Borrowing</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>right</td> <td></td> <td>se</td> <td>á</td> <td></td> <td>se</td> <td>Thok s → 0</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>snake</td> <td>xata</td> <td>seh</td> <td>āš</td> <td></td> <td>seš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cloud</td> <td>pu</td> <td>sepu</td> <td>āpú</td> <td></td> <td>sepu</td> <td>Mao s → :</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>other</td> <td></td> <td>sesa</td> <td>āza</td> <td>shazhi</td> <td>sazä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>all</td> <td></td> <td>sesowo</td> <td>āzāwáo</td> <td></td> <td>sezowo</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>south</td> <td>khim</td> <td>sexi</td> <td>āgio</td> <td></td> <td>segim</td> <td>Zele s → f / _u </td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>left (dir)</td> <td></td> <td>sii</td> <td>í</td> <td></td> <td>sī</td> <td> otherwise → sh</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lion</td> <td>îthi</td> <td>siitsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>sītsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>north</td> <td>ikhim</td> <td>siixi</td> <td>īgio</td> <td>shigimi</td> <td>sīgim</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>see</td> <td>îtû</td> <td>simti<u>?</u></td> <td>iotí</td> <td>sheati</td> <td>simtih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bear child</td> <td></td> <td>sintsih</td> <td>ytšiš</td> <td></td> <td>sintzi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wash</td> <td>ûhe</td> <td>sis</td> <td>ís</td> <td></td> <td>süs-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wrist</td> <td>wam</td> <td>so<u>?</u>on</td> <td>āowaē</td> <td></td> <td>sowan</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>louse</td> <td></td> <td>sufimsin</td> <td>ūpīos</td> <td></td> <td>supims-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sleep, dream</td> <td>upû</td> <td>sufuf</td> <td>ūmū</td> <td>fufub</td> <td>subub</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hate</td> <td>uhâ</td> <td>suha<u>?</u></td> <td>ūšá</td> <td></td> <td>sušah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mouse</td> <td>uhu</td> <td>sus 'rat'</td> <td></td> <td>fush</td> <td>sus</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tongue</td> <td>ôta</td> <td>suut</td> <td>útao</td> <td></td> <td>sūtaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bug</td> <td>yuhi</td> <td>sysi</td> <td>iozīo</td> <td></td> <td>syuzü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>play</td> <td></td> <td>sysi<u>?</u></td> <td>īosí</td> <td></td> <td>syusih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fog, mist</td> <td></td> <td>sysimma</td> <td>iomā</td> <td></td> <td>syusimma</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>well, mine</td> <td>ṫwihi</td> <td>tssi</td> <td>saēšis 'mine'</td> <td></td> <td>seyši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>0</td> <td>s</td> <td>0</td> <td>sh</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>The first set is weird: h and r? Medially the correspondence is h/h/š/r, which puts *š in the ring. I had *r for awhile, but *š fits <i>xiaomo, xin </i>and also coheres with the next set, *s. It's more attractive to say that initial *s and *š are lost in Thok/Mao than the unrelated *r and *s. <p>*s is easier, especially given the medial set h/s/s/š. Medially there's evidence for *z, but if there was initial *z it's merged with *s. <p>By the way, north/south are obviously derivatives of left/right. <p>'Beetle' is tantalizingly close to reconstructible (perhaps *sosipi), but Mao doesn't fit. So somebody's borrowing. <p>Similarly, I can't make anything of 'good' and 'eat'; not enough data. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Dentals *t, *d</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>far</td> <td>to</td> <td>ta</td> <td>tā</td> <td></td> <td>taw</td> <td>Zele t → ts</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>vomit</td> <td>tâṫô</td> <td>tatsuh</td> <td>tatšūš</td> <td></td> <td>tatzuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fight</td> <td></td> <td>taxeh</td> <td>takaēš</td> <td></td> <td>takeyš</td> <td>Thok t → t / _e, ä</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>head</td> <td>ta</td> <td>te</td> <td>tao</td> <td></td> <td>taw</td> <td> (except 'head')</td> <td>tou</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>so that</td> <td></td> <td>te<u>?</u></td> <td>tá</td> <td></td> <td>teh</td> <td>Thok ts → č / _un</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lentil</td> <td>tophî</td> <td>tfinh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>topinš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>daughter</td> <td></td> <td>tii</td> <td>ti</td> <td></td> <td>tī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sky</td> <td>twam</td> <td>tiihen</td> <td>tílae</td> <td></td> <td>tīyen</td> <td></td> <td>tian</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>drop</td> <td></td> <td>tja</td> <td>taelāo</td> <td></td> <td>tayaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pea</td> <td></td> <td>to<u>?</u>uu</td> <td>taowú</td> <td></td> <td>towu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>go</td> <td>tohe</td> <td>tos</td> <td>taozāo</td> <td>tsoshã</td> <td>tozam </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>slow</td> <td>tome</td> <td>towa<u>?</u></td> <td>taoma</td> <td></td> <td>tomeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>come</td> <td></td> <td>tsun</td> <td>tiosy`</td> <td></td> <td>tyusun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>knee</td> <td>twîtham</td> <td>tts</td> <td>tytsāo</td> <td></td> <td>twetsam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>child</td> <td>ṫêṫi</td> <td>ttsi</td> <td>tatsi</td> <td></td> <td>tetsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>leg</td> <td>tu</td> <td>tu</td> <td>ty`</td> <td></td> <td>tuy</td> <td></td> <td>tui</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>seed</td> <td>tyam</td> <td>tû<u>?</u>e</td> <td>tylāo</td> <td></td> <td>tweyam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>belly</td> <td>twî</td> <td>tû<u>?</u>iih</td> <td>tylīš</td> <td></td> <td>tweyī</td> <td></td> <td>duzi</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>stop</td> <td>twixe</td> <td>tûk</td> <td>tygīo</td> <td>tseyea</td> <td>tswegim</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>enemy</td> <td></td> <td>tuts</td> <td>tutā</td> <td></td> <td>tut-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spit</td> <td>tôṫô</td> <td>tutsuh</td> <td>tútšūš</td> <td></td> <td>tutzuš</td> <td></td> <td>tutan</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>take</td> <td>tume</td> <td>twin</td> <td>tumy`</td> <td></td> <td>tumi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>near</td> <td>tyu</td> <td>ty</td> <td>tī</td> <td></td> <td>tyü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fast</td> <td>tyume</td> <td>tywa<u>?</u></td> <td>tioma</td> <td></td> <td>tyumeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>2s</td> <td>tu</td> <td></td> <td>tú</td> <td></td> <td>tu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>girl</td> <td>tyukam</td> <td></td> <td>tiokāo</td> <td></td> <td>tyukam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>three</td> <td>ṫe</td> <td>te</td> <td>taé</td> <td></td> <td>tey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>twelve</td> <td>tôkata</td> <td></td> <td>taéga</td> <td></td> <td>tey-kada</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>compare</td> <td>ṫehâ</td> <td>tesa<u>?</u></td> <td>taesá</td> <td></td> <td>teysah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sing</td> <td>ṫêṫamâ</td> <td>ttsawa<u>?</u></td> <td>tatšāmá</td> <td>sumazhi</td> <td>totzámah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>egg</td> <td>ṫênwam</td> <td></td> <td>taenūwaē</td> <td></td> <td>teynuwan</td> <td></td> <td>dan ?</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>son</td> <td></td> <td>te</td> <td>ta</td> <td></td> <td>te</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>white</td> <td>čîmê</td> <td>tunmam</td> <td>tymao</td> <td></td> <td>tunmäm</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>snow</td> <td>čîmî</td> <td>tuunmam</td> <td>tymáo</td> <td></td> <td>tūnmam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>ts</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>who</td> <td></td> <td>suu</td> <td>zu</td> <td></td> <td>sū ?</td> <td>Thok d → tt (exc. 'know' ṫ)</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>swim</td> <td>ttahapû</td> <td>tsafi<u>?</u></td> <td>zapí</td> <td></td> <td>dasafih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>know</td> <td>ṫêṫâ</td> <td>ttsa<u>?</u></td> <td>zaotšā</td> <td>toza</td> <td>dowtzah</td> <td>Muts d → t before lost vowel</td> <td>zhidao ?</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>silver</td> <td>fêṫuma</td> <td></td> <td>zumao</td> <td></td> <td>dumaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hit</td> <td>ttatô</td> <td></td> <td>zatūš</td> <td>tatu</td> <td>datuh</td> <td></td> <td>da</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Mao d → z</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>father</td> <td>ttatta</td> <td>data</td> <td>zašā</td> <td></td> <td>dada</td> <td>Zele d → t</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sea</td> <td></td> <td>duu</td> <td>zú</td> <td>tuzh</td> <td>dū</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>river</td> <td>ttwiku</td> <td>dûûxu</td> <td>zugú</td> <td></td> <td>dwegu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>tt</td> <td>d, ts, s</td> <td>z</td> <td>t</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>*t is pretty straightforward, though Thok's č in two words is strange. It may be related to the k → x change, and also seemed to occur only in checked syllables. <p>I'm not very confident in that *d. The medials are no help: the distinction from *t is lost except for Mao, which has z. I reconstructed *z at first; but *d seems to fit the phonological facts better— the reflexes are almost all dental stops, and *d → t seems a little more plausible than *z → t. And when it seems clear that there was a *g, then I'd rather expect *b, *d as well. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Affricates *ts, *tz</font></h4><b></b> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>neck</td> <td>ṫîpu</td> <td>( hy<u>?</u>uun )</td> <td>tsikamá</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Thok ts → ṫ</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>copper</td> <td></td> <td>tsnohi</td> <td>tsunūi</td> <td></td> <td>tsunohi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hide</td> <td></td> <td>tsamm</td> <td>tsaomī</td> <td></td> <td>tsammi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wing</td> <td>ṫêpam</td> <td></td> <td>tsišpāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsišpam</td> <td></td> <td>chibang</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>squeeze</td> <td>ṫahe</td> <td>tsah</td> <td>tsašāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsašew</td> <td>Zele ts → t</td> <td>zhaqu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ash</td> <td>(paṫâ)ṫačî</td> <td>tsaty</td> <td>tsazy</td> <td></td> <td>tsadi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smoke</td> <td>ṫattyu</td> <td></td> <td>tsazío</td> <td></td> <td>tsadī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>elbow</td> <td>ṫêṫu</td> <td>tsotsu</td> <td>tsaotsú</td> <td></td> <td>tsowtsu</td> <td></td> <td>zhou</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hunt</td> <td>ṫokû</td> <td>tsox</td> <td>tsaokīo</td> <td></td> <td>tsokü</td> <td></td> <td>zhuigan</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tree</td> <td>ṫonam</td> <td>tsna</td> <td>tsaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsonam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>branch</td> <td>ṫopi</td> <td>tsfi</td> <td>tsaopí</td> <td></td> <td>tsopi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sister</td> <td>ṫêṫam</td> <td>tsan</td> <td>tsatsae</td> <td>toza</td> <td>tsotsay</td> <td></td> <td>jiejie</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>guts</td> <td>ṫêmi</td> <td>tsemmi</td> <td>tsaomi</td> <td></td> <td>tsemmi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>forest</td> <td></td> <td>tse</td> <td>tsao</td> <td></td> <td>tsaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>then</td> <td></td> <td>tse</td> <td>tsaē</td> <td></td> <td>tsey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fat</td> <td></td> <td>tjems</td> <td>tsipaē</td> <td></td> <td>tseyp-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>finger</td> <td></td> <td>tsii</td> <td>tsi</td> <td></td> <td>tsī</td> <td></td> <td>(shou)zhi</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sharp</td> <td>ṫe</td> <td></td> <td>tsy</td> <td></td> <td>tsï</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>frog</td> <td></td> <td>tsimho</td> <td>tsiošwā</td> <td></td> <td>tsimšV</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>foot</td> <td>ṫu</td> <td>tsu</td> <td>tsú</td> <td></td> <td>tsu</td> <td></td> <td>jiao</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pig</td> <td></td> <td>tsuutsu</td> <td>tsú</td> <td></td> <td>tsū</td> <td></td> <td>zhu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>stone</td> <td>ṫuma</td> <td>tsuuwa</td> <td>tsuma</td> <td></td> <td>tsūma</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pick</td> <td>ṫipô</td> <td>tsfuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tsipuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ugly</td> <td>ṫînu</td> <td>tsuunv</td> <td>tsynu</td> <td></td> <td>tsūšu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>blood</td> <td>ṫûṫi</td> <td>tsiitsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tsutsï</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>farm</td> <td></td> <td>tsuntin</td> <td>tsyzyš</td> <td></td> <td>tsuntu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>beech</td> <td>ṫwî</td> <td>tsy<u>?</u>uun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tswehun ?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>ṫ</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>t</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cut</td> <td></td> <td>tsuhkin</td> <td>tšušky`</td> <td></td> <td>tzuškin</td> <td>See medials: def. phonemic</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>or</td> <td>ṫahu</td> <td>tsa</td> <td>tša</td> <td></td> <td>tza-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>throw</td> <td>ṫohî</td> <td>tssams</td> <td>tšaosāos</td> <td></td> <td>tzosams</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bird</td> <td>ṫîphî</td> <td>tsiifi</td> <td>tšímī</td> <td></td> <td>tzībī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>metal</td> <td>ṫumaxa</td> <td></td> <td>tšimaetú</td> <td></td> <td>tzümayt-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>split</td> <td>ṫômô</td> <td>tsuhma</td> <td>tšušmāo</td> <td></td> <td>tzušmaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>ṫ</td> <td>ts</td> <td>tš</td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>*ts seems pretty good, when two languages retain it and the others are at least compatible with it. It could have been some other affricate, of course, like *č. <p>The medials make it clear that <i>some</i> sort of constrast with *ts is going on: Mao has ts vs. tš and Zele has s vs. z. Consider *tz to be just a recognition of the contrast without much attempt to define it. It could equally well be *tš or *dz or *dž. <p><h3><font color="#0000ff">Medials</font></h3> <h4><font color="#0000ff">Velars *k, *g</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>ENGLISH</td> <td>THOK</td> <td>MUTS</td> <td>MAO</td> <td>ZELE</td> <td>PROTO</td> <td>CHINESE</td> <td>CHANGES</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>new</td> <td>kahake</td> <td>khaxa<u>?</u></td> <td>kašága</td> <td></td> <td>kašageh</td> <td></td> <td>Thok g → k</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>light</td> <td>khikîtû</td> <td></td> <td>kigiozi</td> <td></td> <td>kigüdü</td> <td></td> <td>Thok g → kh / _i (exc. 'rice')</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>rice</td> <td>nyaki</td> <td>njax</td> <td>lāgī</td> <td></td> <td>lagi</td> <td></td> <td>Thok g → x / _e ??</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>warm</td> <td>kape</td> <td>hexafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āgamā</td> <td>ragapa</td> <td>šegabeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>south</td> <td>khim</td> <td>sexi</td> <td>āgio</td> <td></td> <td>segim</td> <td></td> <td>Muts g → x</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>north</td> <td>ikhim</td> <td>siixi</td> <td>īgio</td> <td>shigimi</td> <td>sīgim</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>stop</td> <td>twixe</td> <td>tûk</td> <td>tygīo</td> <td>tseyea</td> <td>tswegim</td> <td></td> <td>Zele g → y / _i (exc. 'north')</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>river</td> <td>ttwiku</td> <td>dûûxu</td> <td>zugú</td> <td></td> <td>zwegu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>k</td> <td>x</td> <td>g</td> <td>g, y</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>live</td> <td>ixe</td> <td>hexa</td> <td>aēkā</td> <td>reke</td> <td>šeykä</td> <td></td> <td>Thok k → x /_ä</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fight</td> <td></td> <td>taxeh</td> <td>takaēš</td> <td></td> <td>takeyš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hunt</td> <td>ṫokû</td> <td>tsox</td> <td>tsaokīo</td> <td></td> <td>tsokü</td> <td>zhuigan</td> <td>Muts k → x</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>girl</td> <td>tyukam</td> <td></td> <td>tiokāo</td> <td></td> <td>tyukam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>deer</td> <td>uka</td> <td>ûxa</td> <td>lukā 'reindeer'</td> <td></td> <td>yuka</td> <td>lu</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>brother</td> <td>kakam</td> <td>kxan</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kakam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>happy</td> <td>ku</td> <td>hex</td> <td>āku</td> <td></td> <td>šeku</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>twelve</td> <td>tôkata</td> <td></td> <td>taéga</td> <td></td> <td>tey-kada</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>k</td> <td>x</td> <td>k</td> <td>k</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Again, it seems pretty easy to reconstruct *k and *g. As we'll see, Muts likes to fricativize medial stops. <p>We saw Zele g → y with the initials as well, though I'm quite hazy on the exact condition. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Approximants *h, *y, *w</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>priest</td> <td>kuhu</td> <td></td> <td>kū</td> <td></td> <td>kuhu</td> <td></td> <td>Muts h → <u>?</u> after y</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>but</td> <td>pahu</td> <td>py<u>?</u>o<u>?</u></td> <td>wū</td> <td></td> <td>p?hu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>young</td> <td>uhu</td> <td>huuhu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>šūhu</td> <td></td> <td>Mao h → 0</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eat</td> <td></td> <td>si<u>?</u></td> <td>ši</td> <td></td> <td>ših</td> <td>chi</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>copper</td> <td></td> <td>tsnohi</td> <td>tsunūi</td> <td></td> <td>tsunohi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>so that</td> <td></td> <td>te<u>?</u></td> <td>tá</td> <td></td> <td>teh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wolf</td> <td>wîhî</td> <td>wiatsu</td> <td>wíatsū</td> <td>boabun</td> <td>wihatsü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>h</td> <td><u>?</u></td> <td>0</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bite</td> <td>kâ</td> <td>kajoh</td> <td>kalāoš</td> <td></td> <td>káyaw</td> <td>() yao?</td> <td>Thok y → 0 exc. seed, noodle</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>winter</td> <td>kû</td> <td>ku<u>?</u>û</td> <td>kulú</td> <td></td> <td>kuyu</td> <td></td> <td>Muts y → <u>?</u> </td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>noodle</td> <td>nayu</td> <td></td> <td>nalū</td> <td></td> <td>nayu</td> <td></td> <td> but sometimes → j </td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>beautiful</td> <td>ipa</td> <td>pa<u>?</u>a</td> <td>palā</td> <td></td> <td>paya</td> <td></td> <td>Mao y → l</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>drop</td> <td></td> <td>tja</td> <td>taelāo</td> <td></td> <td>tayaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sky</td> <td>twam</td> <td>tiihen</td> <td>tílae</td> <td></td> <td>tīyen</td> <td>tian</td> <td>(similar to initials)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>seed</td> <td>tyam</td> <td>tû<u>?</u>e</td> <td>tylāo</td> <td></td> <td>tweyam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>belly</td> <td>twî</td> <td>tû<u>?</u>iih</td> <td>tylīš</td> <td></td> <td>tweyī</td> <td>duzi</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flower</td> <td>onam</td> <td>hjona</td> <td>ālaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>šayonam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>beech</td> <td>ṫwî</td> <td>tsy<u>?</u>uun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tsweyun ?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>0</td> <td><u>?</u>, y</td> <td>l</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>all</td> <td></td> <td>sesowo</td> <td>āzāwáo</td> <td></td> <td>sezowo</td> <td></td> <td>Thok w → 0 adjacent to u</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pine</td> <td></td> <td>jasuwy</td> <td>lásuwy</td> <td></td> <td>yasuwi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tie</td> <td>nû</td> <td></td> <td>nuwī</td> <td></td> <td>nuwi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>egg</td> <td>ṫênwam</td> <td></td> <td>taenūwaē</td> <td></td> <td>teynuwan</td> <td>dan ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>throat</td> <td>wî</td> <td></td> <td>āowyš</td> <td></td> <td>wiš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>w</td> <td>w</td> <td>w</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>earth, dirt</td> <td>uhî</td> <td>uuho<u>?</u>o</td> <td>wušāowá</td> <td></td> <td>wūšowo</td> <td></td> <td>Muts owV → o<u>?</u>V</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wrist</td> <td>wam</td> <td>so<u>?</u>on</td> <td>āowaē</td> <td></td> <td>sowan</td> <td>wanzi</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pea</td> <td></td> <td>to<u>?</u>uu</td> <td>taowú</td> <td></td> <td>towu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>w</td> <td><u>?</u></td> <td>w</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>argue</td> <td>mwitâ</td> <td>mûsa<u>?</u></td> <td>mutá</td> <td></td> <td>mwetah</td> <td></td> <td>Thok h# → ^</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>say</td> <td>ôtâ (?)</td> <td>psa<u>?</u></td> <td>pazá</td> <td>pota</td> <td>podah</td> <td></td> <td> exc. eh# → e</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hate</td> <td>uhâ</td> <td>suha<u>?</u></td> <td>ūšá</td> <td></td> <td>sušah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>compare</td> <td>ṫehâ</td> <td>tesa<u>?</u></td> <td>taesá</td> <td></td> <td>teysah</td> <td></td> <td>Muts h# → <u>?</u></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>know</td> <td>ṫêṫâ</td> <td>ttsa<u>?</u></td> <td>zaotšā</td> <td>toza</td> <td>dowtzah</td> <td>zhidao ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sing</td> <td>ṫêṫamâ</td> <td>ttsawa<u>?</u></td> <td>tatšāmá</td> <td>sumazhi</td> <td>totzámah</td> <td></td> <td>Mao h# → |</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>red</td> <td>pe</td> <td>hafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āmā</td> <td>rapa</td> <td>šabeh</td> <td></td> <td> exc. ej# → ā or a</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>warm</td> <td>kape</td> <td>hexafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āgamā</td> <td>ragapa</td> <td>šegabeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>new</td> <td>kahake</td> <td>khaxa<u>?</u></td> <td>kašága</td> <td></td> <td>kašageh</td> <td></td> <td>Zele h# → 0</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>slow</td> <td>tome</td> <td>towa<u>?</u></td> <td>taoma</td> <td></td> <td>tomeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fast</td> <td>tyume</td> <td>tywa<u>?</u></td> <td>tioma</td> <td></td> <td>tyumeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hot</td> <td>paṫû</td> <td>hefatsi<u>?</u></td> <td>āmatsi</td> <td>rabasi</td> <td>šebatsih</td> <td></td> <td>Could also be -y or -w!!</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>black</td> <td>uttû</td> <td>juuti<u>?</u></td> <td>ludī</td> <td></td> <td>yūdih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>think</td> <td>mwîṫû</td> <td>mûtsi<u>?</u></td> <td>mutsí</td> <td></td> <td>mwetsih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>see</td> <td>îtû</td> <td>simti<u>?</u></td> <td>iotí</td> <td>sheati</td> <td>simtih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>play</td> <td></td> <td>sysi<u>?</u></td> <td>īosí</td> <td></td> <td>syusih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>swim</td> <td>ttahapû</td> <td>tsafi<u>?</u></td> <td>zapí</td> <td></td> <td>dasafih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>freeze</td> <td></td> <td>wûwi<u>?</u></td> <td>wumí</td> <td></td> <td>wumih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>if</td> <td></td> <td><u>?</u>wu<u>?</u></td> <td>ūmú</td> <td></td> <td>wumuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>^</td> <td><u>?</u>#</td> <td>|</td> <td></b>0</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>That first set is pretty unsatisfying. Initial *h in Thok may also reflect *s/*š, but the reflexes would be different in Muts/Mao. *h is just a <i>pis aller</i> since there seems to be <i>something </i>there, but we can't say what. (Both h and <u>?</u> are at the bottom of the lenition hierarchy, so the original could be almost anything.) <p>*y was discussed above. At least *y makes 'sky' *tīyen, closer to <i>tian</i> than *tīlen would be. <p>*w is fairly straightforward. If we had more data, we might get a more likely-sounding condition on Muts w → <u>?</u>. <p>The last set could be various things. As we'll see, Thok's circumflexed vowels often indicate something elided, but doesn't say what it was. Muts's <u>?</u> could be anything. Mao usually has a compensatory high tone, though again this doesn't tell us what was lost. I picked *h because it more or less matches the first set, but it could also be *w or *y or God knows what. But I did reconstruct diphthongs elsewhere, and they normally didn't generate a <u>?</u> in Muts. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Nasals *m</font></h4><b></b><b></b> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>sheep</td> <td>mima</td> <td>miiwa</td> <td>mima</td> <td>mimazhi</td> <td>mīma</td> <td></td> <td>Muts m → w</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>many</td> <td>pomî</td> <td>pwun</td> <td>paomy</td> <td></td> <td>pomü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>few</td> <td>pimô</td> <td>piiwu</td> <td>pimu</td> <td></td> <td>pīmuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fish</td> <td>pumu</td> <td>pwu</td> <td>pumy`</td> <td></td> <td>pumu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>die</td> <td>wime</td> <td>hwun</td> <td>ymy</td> <td>remoa</td> <td>šwemo</td> <td>xiaomo</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sing</td> <td>ṫêṫamâ</td> <td>ttsawa<u>?</u></td> <td>tatšāmá</td> <td></td> <td>totzámah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>stone</td> <td>ṫuma</td> <td>tsuuwa</td> <td>tsuma</td> <td>sumazhi</td> <td>tsūma</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>take</td> <td>tume</td> <td>twin</td> <td>tumy`</td> <td></td> <td>tumi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>freeze</td> <td></td> <td>wûwi<u>?</u></td> <td>wumí</td> <td></td> <td>wumih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>if</td> <td></td> <td><u>?</u>wu<u>?</u></td> <td>ūmú</td> <td></td> <td>wumuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>metal</td> <td>ṫumaxa</td> <td></td> <td>tšimaetú</td> <td></td> <td>tzümayt-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>thin</td> <td>ume</td> <td></td> <td>ūma</td> <td></td> <td>umä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smooth</td> <td>ûhamyu</td> <td></td> <td>isāmīo</td> <td></td> <td>üsamyu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>feather</td> <td>uma</td> <td></td> <td>lumāo</td> <td></td> <td>yumaw</td> <td>yumao</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>silver</td> <td>fêṫuma</td> <td></td> <td>zumao</td> <td></td> <td>dumaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fly</td> <td>kome</td> <td></td> <td>gaomā</td> <td>home</td> <td>gomä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lie down, rest</td> <td>komô</td> <td>gwuh</td> <td>gaomūš</td> <td></td> <td>gomuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sit</td> <td>mome</td> <td>mwun</td> <td>maomy`</td> <td></td> <td>momun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>month, moon</td> <td>kyumi</td> <td>kyywi</td> <td>kiomi</td> <td></td> <td>kyumi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>slow</td> <td>tome</td> <td>towa<u>?</u></td> <td>taoma</td> <td></td> <td>tomeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fast</td> <td>tyume</td> <td>tywa<u>?</u></td> <td>tioma</td> <td></td> <td>tyumeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>face</td> <td>myumyu</td> <td>mywyh</td> <td>miomīoš</td> <td></td> <td>myumyus</td> <td>mian</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>m</td> <td>w</td> <td>m</td> <td>m</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>root</td> <td>kunam</td> <td>guuna</td> <td>gunao</td> <td></td> <td>gūnam</td> <td>genben</td> <td>Muts -m → 0 (exc. 'arm')</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>rain</td> <td>mim</td> <td>mii</td> <td>mio</td> <td></td> <td>mīm</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>grass</td> <td>minam</td> <td>mwina</td> <td>mināo</td> <td>minam</td> <td>minam</td> <td></td> <td>Mao -m → -o </td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>person</td> <td>nam</td> <td>na</td> <td>nao (agentive)</td> <td>nam</td> <td>nam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>arm</td> <td>fêpam</td> <td>piipaw</td> <td>pípao</td> <td></td> <td>pïmpam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flower</td> <td>onam</td> <td>hjona</td> <td>ālaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>šayonam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>north</td> <td>ikhim</td> <td>siixi</td> <td>īgio</td> <td>shigimi</td> <td>sīgim</td> <td></td> <td>egg' is odd</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>egg</td> <td>ṫênwam</td> <td></td> <td>taenūwaē</td> <td></td> <td>teynuwan</td> <td>dan ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tree</td> <td>ṫonam</td> <td>tsna</td> <td>tsaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsonam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>girl</td> <td>tyukam</td> <td></td> <td>tiokāo</td> <td></td> <td>tyukam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>heavy</td> <td>xemîtû</td> <td></td> <td>kaemiozī</td> <td></td> <td>keymītü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>brother</td> <td>kakam</td> <td>kxan</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kakam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wing</td> <td>ṫêpam</td> <td></td> <td>tsišpāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsišpam</td> <td>chibang</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>m#</td> <td>0#</td> <td>o#</td> <td>m#</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>nut, seed</td> <td>kuxî</td> <td>kxam</td> <td><b></td> <td></td> <td></b>kumC</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>water</td> <td>mîkhi</td> <td>mimki</td> <td>miogí</td> <td>meakihi</td> <td>mimki</td> <td><b></td> <td></b>Thok mC → ^C </td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>man</td> <td>xêma</td> <td>kemma</td> <td>kaomao 'husband'</td> <td></td> <td>kemmaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>face</td> <td>myumyu</td> <td></td> <td>miomīoš</td> <td></td> <td>myumyu</td> <td></td> <td>Mao mC → oC</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fog, mist</td> <td></td> <td>sysimma</td> <td>iomā</td> <td></td> <td>syusimma</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hide</td> <td></td> <td>tsamm</td> <td>tsaomī</td> <td></td> <td>tsammi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>guts</td> <td>ṫêmi</td> <td>tsemmi</td> <td>tsaomi</td> <td></td> <td>tsemmi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cliff</td> <td></td> <td>hemna</td> <td>aoná</td> <td></td> <td>šemna</td> <td></td> <td>Zele imC → eaC</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>throw</td> <td>ṫohî</td> <td>tssams</td> <td>tšaosāos</td> <td></td> <td>tzosams</td> <td></td> <td> (C → f in neafuri)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>louse</td> <td></td> <td>sufimsin</td> <td>ūpīos</td> <td></td> <td>supims-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>some</td> <td></td> <td>gimsuh</td> <td>giusūš</td> <td>neafuri</td> <td>gimsuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>frog</td> <td></td> <td>tsimho</td> <td>tsiošwā</td> <td></td> <td>tsimšV</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smell</td> <td>îhe</td> <td></td> <td>īošy</td> <td></td> <td>imši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>see</td> <td>îtû</td> <td>simti<u>?</u></td> <td>iotí</td> <td>sheati</td> <td>simtih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>^C</td> <td>mC</td> <td>oC</td> <td>aC</td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td><b></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>shine</td> <td>čîmâ </td> <td>hap</td> <td>āma</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Medial *m is a little more interesting, since it's weakened in Muts. <p>Final *m is more of a puzzle. Mao has a bunch of ao, which I've ended up tracing to three separate sources: *aw, *o, *m. Why not all the same? Largely because we actually see the final m in Thok, Zele, and (before a consonant) Muts; where we don't, I reconstructed *aw or *o. <p>The protolanguage doesn't seem to have tolerated many medial clusters, but there was plenty of evidence for *mC, *nC, *sC. It soon became clear that Muts had kept the medial nasal clusters, Thok replaced them with a circumflex on the previous vowel, Mao turned them into o, and Zele into a. Maybe I was primed to see consonant → o changes since I'd used them in Fáralo! <p>I left 'shine' in just to show that I didn't know what to do with it. None of the consonants really fit an existing pattern; very likely this isn't a cognate set at all. <br><b></b><b></b> <br><h4><font color="#0000ff">Nasals *n</font></h4><b></b> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>root</td> <td>kunam</td> <td>guuna</td> <td>gunao</td> <td></td> <td>gūnam</td> <td>genben</td> <td>no change</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>grass</td> <td>minam</td> <td>mwina</td> <td>mināo</td> <td></td> <td>minam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cow</td> <td>nona</td> <td>nynoh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>non?</td> <td>muniu</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flower</td> <td>onam</td> <td>hjona</td> <td>ālaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>šayonam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>egg</td> <td>ṫênwam</td> <td></td> <td>taenūwaē</td> <td></td> <td>teynuwan</td> <td>dan ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tree</td> <td>ṫonam</td> <td>tsna</td> <td>tsaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsawnam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>copper</td> <td></td> <td>tsnohi</td> <td>tsunūi</td> <td></td> <td>tsunohi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ugly</td> <td>ṫînu</td> <td>tsuunv</td> <td>tsynu</td> <td></td> <td>tsūšu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>blow</td> <td>une</td> <td></td> <td>unu</td> <td></td> <td>unu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>strong</td> <td>unî</td> <td></td> <td>āonyš</td> <td></td> <td>uwni</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bad</td> <td>an</td> <td>wen</td> <td>wanu</td> <td>van</td> <td>wen</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>star</td> <td>uni</td> <td>wejnih</td> <td>waniš</td> <td>benir</td> <td>weniš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>herd</td> <td>kuni</td> <td>kuunii</td> <td>kylí</td> <td></td> <td>kūnyī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td>n</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>love</td> <td>khîṫe</td> <td>ktsan</td> <td>gitšaē</td> <td>yizã</td> <td>gitzan</td> <td></td> <td>Thok n# → ^ (but → 0 for e)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>come</td> <td></td> <td>tsun</td> <td>tiosy`</td> <td></td> <td>tyusun</td> <td></td> <td>Mao n# → -V, but lost after u</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>green</td> <td>nime</td> <td>nin</td> <td>nināo</td> <td>nã</td> <td>ninen</td> <td></td> <td>Zele n# → ~</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sow</td> <td>phîṫâ</td> <td>ptsun</td> <td>putsyš</td> <td></td> <td>putsun</td> <td>bozhong</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wrist</td> <td>wam</td> <td>so<u>?</u>on</td> <td>āowaē</td> <td></td> <td>sowan</td> <td>wanzi</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sky</td> <td>twam</td> <td>tiihen</td> <td>tílae</td> <td></td> <td>tīyen</td> <td>tian</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cut</td> <td></td> <td>tsuhkin</td> <td>tšušky`</td> <td></td> <td>tzuškin</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>breast, chest</td> <td>pômî</td> <td>puhmun</td> <td>pušmyš</td> <td></td> <td>pušmin</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>0</td> <td>n</td> <td>V</td> <td>~</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lead (vb)</td> <td>îtte</td> <td>iinda</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>īnde</td> <td>(yin)dao</td> <td>Thok nC → ^C (but e doesn't → ê)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>follow</td> <td>xêṫe</td> <td>kanta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kant-</td> <td>gensui ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>garden</td> <td>îčî</td> <td></td> <td>wyty</td> <td></td> <td>wintü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>farm</td> <td></td> <td>tsuntin</td> <td>tsyzyš</td> <td></td> <td>tsuntu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>snow</td> <td>čîmî</td> <td>tuunmam</td> <td>tymáo</td> <td></td> <td>tūnmam</td> <td></td> <td>Mao nC → C and vowel → y</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>white</td> <td>čîmê</td> <td>tunmam</td> <td>tymao</td> <td></td> <td>tunmäm</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>skin</td> <td>phînî</td> <td>puunnis</td> <td>pynis</td> <td></td> <td>pūnnis</td> <td>pi</td> <td>Zele inC → eaC</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bear child</td> <td></td> <td>sintsih</td> <td>ytšiš</td> <td></td> <td>sintzi</td> <td></td> <td> but → s here; cf. neafuri above</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>family</td> <td></td> <td>miintsu</td> <td>mytsú</td> <td>measuhi</td> <td>mīntsu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lentil</td> <td>tophî</td> <td>tfinh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>topinš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flow</td> <td></td> <td>uunsa</td> <td>wysāo</td> <td></td> <td>wūnsaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>^C</td> <td>nC</td> <td>C</td> <td>aC</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Much like *m, we have clear medial *n and special cases for final *n and *n before a consonant. <p>I'm not sure what's happening with Thok wam and twam— perhaps these changed randomly to -m. If we had more examples a pattern might emerge. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Labials *p, *b</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>steal</td> <td></td> <td>kejpuns</td> <td>kaépyš</td> <td></td> <td>keypuš</td> <td></td> <td>Thok p → ph / _i</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>temple</td> <td>kuha</td> <td></td> <td>kūpas</td> <td></td> <td>kupa</td> <td>spirit house</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cloud</td> <td>pu</td> <td>sepu</td> <td>āpú</td> <td></td> <td>sepu</td> <td></td> <td>Muts p → f </td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>carry</td> <td>upe</td> <td></td> <td>āopy`</td> <td></td> <td>uwp?</td> <td></td> <td> but not where previous Mao vowel</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>chest</td> <td>mpu</td> <td></td> <td>āopú</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> has a tone!</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>arm</td> <td>fêpam</td> <td>piipaw</td> <td>pípao</td> <td></td> <td>pïmpam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>back</td> <td>fêpu</td> <td></td> <td>pípū</td> <td>pibuzh</td> <td>pïmpu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tail</td> <td>mipa</td> <td>mifa</td> <td>mipā</td> <td></td> <td>mipa</td> <td>weiba</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>clothes</td> <td>mwipa</td> <td>mûfa</td> <td>mupā</td> <td>mepazh</td> <td>mwepa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spring</td> <td>nihipa</td> <td>niisifa</td> <td>nizipá</td> <td></td> <td>nīzipa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>louse</td> <td></td> <td>sufimsin</td> <td>ūpīos</td> <td></td> <td>supims-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lentil</td> <td>tophî</td> <td>tfinh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>topinš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>branch</td> <td>ṫopi</td> <td>tsfi</td> <td>tsaopí</td> <td></td> <td>tsopi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pick</td> <td>ṫipô</td> <td>tsfuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tsipuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>swim</td> <td>ttahapû</td> <td>tsafi<u>?</u></td> <td>zapí</td> <td></td> <td>dasafih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fat</td> <td></td> <td>tjems</td> <td>tsipaē</td> <td></td> <td>tseyp-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>p</td> <td>f</td> <td>p</td> <td>p, b</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>beetle</td> <td></td> <td>sosiwi</td> <td>šūšípi</td> <td>foshibi 'locust</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Thok b → p</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>suck</td> <td>kapâ</td> <td></td> <td>kamá</td> <td></td> <td>kabá</td> <td></td> <td>Thos b → ph / _ī</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>autumn</td> <td>nahupu</td> <td>nesufu</td> <td>nasumú</td> <td></td> <td>nesubu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>summer</td> <td></td> <td>nofa</td> <td>naomaē</td> <td></td> <td>nobäy</td> <td></td> <td>Muts b → f </td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>red</td> <td>pe</td> <td>hafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āmā</td> <td>rapa</td> <td>šabeh</td> <td></td> <td>Mao b → m</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sun, day, east</td> <td>pa</td> <td>hefa</td> <td>āma</td> <td>rabazhi</td> <td>šeba</td> <td>ri ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>west</td> <td>phî</td> <td>hefa<u>?</u>ii</td> <td></td> <td>rababuhi</td> <td>šebahī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fire</td> <td></td> <td>hefatsa</td> <td>amatsá</td> <td>rabasahi</td> <td>šebatse</td> <td></td> <td>Zele s.t. → p instead</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hot</td> <td>paṫû</td> <td>hefatsi<u>?</u></td> <td>āmatsi</td> <td>rabasi</td> <td>šebatsih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>warm</td> <td>kape</td> <td>hexafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āgamā</td> <td>ragapa</td> <td>šegabeh</td> <td>re</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bird</td> <td>ṫîphî</td> <td>tsiifi</td> <td>tšímī</td> <td></td> <td>tzībī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sleep, dream</td> <td>upû</td> <td>sufuf</td> <td>ūmū</td> <td>fufub</td> <td>subub</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>p</td> <td>f</td> <td>m</td> <td>b, f</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>*p is easy enough; one again Muts weakens it medially. <p>The second set was a puzzle. Where'd that m come from in Mao? For awhile I considered *mp; but the pattern is unlike anything that happens with other *mC. *b seems warranted by Zele, and also fits in with having a *g, above. And *b → m for Mao seems plausible. <p>Nonetheless Zele doesn't really have p/b in the pattern I'd expect. Rapa for 'red' is hard to explain. <p>'Beetle', as noted before, just doesn't fit in; not all the words can be cognates. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Sibilants *s, *z</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pine</td> <td></td> <td>jasuwy</td> <td>lásuwy</td> <td></td> <td>yasuwi</td> <td></td> <td>Thok s → h</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>autumn</td> <td>nahupu</td> <td>nesufu</td> <td>nasumú</td> <td></td> <td>nesubu</td> <td></td> <td> s.t. with ^ before ...or after!</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sew</td> <td>nwihe</td> <td>nûs</td> <td>nusīo</td> <td></td> <td>nwese</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>climb</td> <td>pâhâ</td> <td></td> <td>pasaēš</td> <td></td> <td>pasayC</td> <td>pa</td> <td>Zele s → sh</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>house</td> <td>nêpaha</td> <td>psa</td> <td>pasaē</td> <td></td> <td>pasay</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>long</td> <td></td> <td>psoh</td> <td>pusāoš</td> <td></td> <td>pusaws</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>kill</td> <td>wihâ</td> <td>hûsam</td> <td>ysaoš</td> <td></td> <td>šwesa</td> <td>shasi</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mouse</td> <td>uhu</td> <td>sus 'rat'</td> <td></td> <td>fush</td> <td>sus</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>play</td> <td></td> <td>sysi<u>?</u></td> <td>īosí</td> <td></td> <td>syusih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>compare</td> <td>ṫehâ</td> <td>tesa<u>?</u></td> <td>taesá</td> <td></td> <td>teysah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wash</td> <td>ûhe</td> <td>sis</td> <td>ís</td> <td></td> <td>süs-</td> <td>xi ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smooth</td> <td>ûhamyu</td> <td></td> <td>isāmīo</td> <td></td> <td>üsamyu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>dig</td> <td>ahô</td> <td>ys</td> <td>wīs</td> <td></td> <td>wüs</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>come</td> <td></td> <td>tsun</td> <td>tiosy`</td> <td></td> <td>tyusun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>throw</td> <td>ṫohî</td> <td>tssams</td> <td>tšaosāos</td> <td></td> <td>tzosams</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>one</td> <td>uhô</td> <td></td> <td>sí</td> <td></td> <td>usü</td> <td><b></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>^h</td> <td>s</td> <td>s</td> <td>sh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>crops</td> <td>kôhi</td> <td>kuhsi</td> <td>kus</td> <td></td> <td>kussi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>woman</td> <td>khîphî</td> <td>kiispy</td> <td>kispio</td> <td></td> <td>kīspü</td> <td></td> <td>Thok sC → ^C</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>^p</td> <td>sp</td> <td>sp, šp</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>all</td> <td></td> <td>sesowo</td> <td>āzāwáo</td> <td></td> <td>sezowo</td> <td></td> <td>Thok z → h</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hand, year</td> <td></td> <td>ksah</td> <td>kazāš</td> <td></td> <td>kazaš</td> <td></td> <td>Muts z → s</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spring</td> <td>nihipa</td> <td>niisifa</td> <td>nizipá</td> <td></td> <td>nīzipa</td> <td></td> <td>Zels z → zh (exc. 'go')</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>other</td> <td></td> <td>sesa</td> <td>āza</td> <td>shazhi</td> <td>sazä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>go</td> <td>tohe</td> <td>tos</td> <td>taozāo</td> <td>tsoshã</td> <td>tozam </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bug</td> <td>yuhi</td> <td>sysi</td> <td>iozīo</td> <td></td> <td>syuzü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pull</td> <td>nyô</td> <td></td> <td>nizīo</td> <td></td> <td>nidum ?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>swim</td> <td>ttahapû</td> <td>tsafi<u>?</u></td> <td>zapí</td> <td></td> <td>dasafih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>h</td> <td>s</td> <td>z</td> <td>š, ž</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>*s is fairly straightforward, especially as Mao retains it instead of (as with the initials) losing it. <p>It seems like clusters *sC were allowed too, though for some reason there aren't many of them. <p>In the second set, both Mao and Zele suggest that the difference from *s is one of voicing. It could have been something else, but if no there's no evidence what it could be. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Sibilant *s</font></h4><b></b> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>five</td> <td>katâhi</td> <td></td> <td>azāš</td> <td></td> <td>kada-ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>six</td> <td>katâhihwi</td> <td></td> <td>zāšys</td> <td></td> <td>kada-šišwe</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ten</td> <td>katâṫîhihwi</td> <td></td> <td>gašys</td> <td></td> <td>kada-zi-ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>often</td> <td>ihehyô</td> <td></td> <td>aešae</td> <td>rer</td> <td>šeysu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>two</td> <td>ihwi</td> <td></td> <td>īšys</td> <td></td> <td>šišwe</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fall</td> <td>kaheṫe</td> <td></td> <td>kašaētīo</td> <td></td> <td>kašeyt-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sand</td> <td></td> <td>pah</td> <td>pāš</td> <td>par</td> <td>paš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>laugh</td> <td>hihe</td> <td>haxih</td> <td>āšišā</td> <td></td> <td>šašïše</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>horse</td> <td>uha</td> <td>hyha</td> <td>āoša</td> <td></td> <td>šuwša</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>snake</td> <td>xata (?)</td> <td>seh</td> <td>āš</td> <td></td> <td>seš</td> <td>she ?</td> <td>Thok š → h</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hate</td> <td>uhâ</td> <td>suha<u>?</u></td> <td>ūšá</td> <td></td> <td>sušah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fight</td> <td></td> <td>taxeh</td> <td>takaēš</td> <td></td> <td>takeyš</td> <td></td> <td>Muts š → h</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>never</td> <td>uhôhap</td> <td></td> <td>ūúšae</td> <td></td> <td>uhušay</td> <td></td> <td>š → x / a_, ä_</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>breath, wind</td> <td>uhiphi</td> <td></td> <td>ūšipí</td> <td>roazh ?</td> <td>ušipi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>star</td> <td>uni</td> <td>wejnih</td> <td>waniš</td> <td>benir</td> <td>weniš</td> <td></td> <td>Zele š → r</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>dog</td> <td>îhî</td> <td></td> <td>wyš</td> <td></td> <td>wuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>earth, dirt</td> <td>uhî</td> <td>uuho<u>?</u>o</td> <td>wušāowá</td> <td></td> <td>wūšowo</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>new</td> <td>kahake</td> <td>khaxa<u>?</u></td> <td>kašága</td> <td></td> <td>kašageh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>laugh</td> <td>hihe</td> <td>haxih</td> <td>āšišā</td> <td></td> <td>šašïše</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>squeeze</td> <td>ṫahe</td> <td>tsah</td> <td>tsašāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsašew</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mushroom</td> <td>muhu</td> <td>muuhu</td> <td>mú</td> <td></td> <td>mūšu</td> <td>mogu</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fear</td> <td>ohe</td> <td>joh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>yoše</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>vomit</td> <td>tâṫô</td> <td>tatsuh</td> <td>tatšūš</td> <td></td> <td>tatzuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>h</td> <td>h</td> <td>š</td> <td>r</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>well, mine</td> <td>ṫwihi</td> <td>tssi</td> <td>saēšis 'mine'</td> <td></td> <td>seyši</td> <td>jingshui ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>h</td> <td>s</td> <td>š</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cut</td> <td></td> <td>tsuhkin</td> <td>tšušky`</td> <td></td> <td>tzuškin</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>breast, chest</td> <td>pômî</td> <td>puhmun</td> <td>pušmyš</td> <td></td> <td>pušmin</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>split</td> <td>ṫômô</td> <td>tsuhma</td> <td>tšušmāo</td> <td></td> <td>tzušmaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wing</td> <td>ṫêpam</td> <td></td> <td>tsišpāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsišpam</td> <td>chibang</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>^C</td> <td>hC</td> <td>šC</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>See the section on initials on why *s rather than *r. (Mandarin <i>mogu </i>is enough to make me wonder if it's something else entirely— maybe *h or *x— but certainly not *g!) <p>'Well, mine' is probably a red herring— none of the consonants, initials or medials, really fit. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Dentals *t, *d</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>give</td> <td></td> <td>nysa<u>?</u></td> <td>niotá</td> <td></td> <td>nyuta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>seven</td> <td>katâṫe</td> <td></td> <td>kataé</td> <td></td> <td>katey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>call</td> <td>pyutâ</td> <td></td> <td>piotá</td> <td></td> <td>pyutá</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tongue</td> <td>ôta</td> <td>suut</td> <td>útao</td> <td></td> <td>sūtaw</td> <td>shetou</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>metal</td> <td>ṫumaxa</td> <td></td> <td>tšimaetú</td> <td></td> <td>tzümayt-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>enemy</td> <td></td> <td>tuts</td> <td>tutā</td> <td></td> <td>tut-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eleven</td> <td>katâṫîṫe</td> <td></td> <td>zātaé</td> <td></td> <td>dátey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hit</td> <td>ttatô</td> <td></td> <td>zatūš</td> <td>tatu</td> <td>datuh</td> <td>da</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>t</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>five</td> <td>katâhi</td> <td></td> <td>azāš</td> <td></td> <td>(k)adáš</td> <td></td> <td>Muts d → s when Mao has á after...</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>four</td> <td>kata</td> <td></td> <td>kazā</td> <td></td> <td>kada</td> <td></td> <td>else d → t</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hill</td> <td></td> <td>kejdi</td> <td>kaezí</td> <td></td> <td>keydi</td> <td></td> <td>Mao d → z</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>light</td> <td>khikîtû</td> <td></td> <td>kigiozi</td> <td></td> <td>kigüdü</td> <td></td> <td>Zele d → t</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wheat</td> <td>mâta</td> <td>mata</td> <td>máza</td> <td>matazh</td> <td>máda</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>say</td> <td>ôtâ (?)</td> <td>psa<u>?</u></td> <td>pazá</td> <td>pota</td> <td>podah</td> <td></td> <td>Thok d → t exc. → ṫ before _i</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eight</td> <td>katâṫyu</td> <td></td> <td>īka</td> <td></td> <td>kada-dyu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>nine</td> <td>katâṫîhi</td> <td></td> <td>āgazāš</td> <td></td> <td>kada-di-ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ash</td> <td>(paṫâ)ṫačî</td> <td>tsaty</td> <td>tsazy</td> <td></td> <td>tsadi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>t</td> <td>t</td> <td>z</td> <td>t</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>turn</td> <td>nattô</td> <td></td> <td>nazāo</td> <td></td> <td>nadaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smoke</td> <td>ṫattyu</td> <td></td> <td>tsazío</td> <td></td> <td>tsadī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>want</td> <td>nittû</td> <td>nit</td> <td>nizīo</td> <td></td> <td>nidu-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>night</td> <td>utta</td> <td>ûta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>uda</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>father</td> <td>ttatta</td> <td>data</td> <td>zašā</td> <td></td> <td>dada</td> <td></td> <td>Thok d → tt</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>black</td> <td>uttû</td> <td>juuti<u>?</u></td> <td>ludī</td> <td></td> <td>yūdih</td> <td></td> <td>except sometimes it's t or č!</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ear</td> <td>itta</td> <td><u>?</u>ita</td> <td>īzā</td> <td></td> <td>ida</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>tt</td> <td>t</td> <td>z</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>I'm not very happy with *d; see the Initials section for the reasoning. <p>It looks like *d → t or tt randomly in Thok. On the other hand, four instances of the first set are really one word, *kada 'four', 'ash' is yet another reflex, *c, and 'say' is weird anyway because of its lost initial. That leaves just 3 clear instances of *d → t: kata, khikîtû, mâta. I still can't see a pattern, but it makes *d → tt predominate. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Affricates *ts, *tz</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>flax</td> <td>maṫi</td> <td>metsi</td> <td>matsi</td> <td></td> <td>metsi</td> <td></td> <td>Thok ts → ṫ</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hear, listen</td> <td>mîṫe</td> <td>mets</td> <td>matsīo</td> <td>mesea</td> <td>metsew</td> <td></td> <td>exc. 'lion'</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>think</td> <td>mwîṫû</td> <td>mûtsi<u>?</u></td> <td>mutsí</td> <td></td> <td>mwetsih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sow</td> <td>phîṫâ</td> <td>ptsun</td> <td>putsyš</td> <td></td> <td>pütsün</td> <td>bozhong</td> <td>Zele ts → s (exc. toza)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hot</td> <td>paṫû</td> <td>hefatsi<u>?</u></td> <td>āmatsi</td> <td>rabasi</td> <td>šebatsih</td> <td></td> <td>(boabun is very weird)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fire</td> <td></td> <td>hefatsa</td> <td>amatsá</td> <td>rabasahi</td> <td>šebatse</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fox</td> <td>wiṫî</td> <td>hu<u>?</u>ytsim</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>šwetsim</td> <td></td> <td>y </td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lion</td> <td>îti</td> <td>siitsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>sītsi</td> <td>shizi</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>child</td> <td>ṫêṫi</td> <td>ttsi</td> <td>tatsi</td> <td></td> <td>tetsi</td> <td>zi</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>elbow</td> <td>ṫêṫu</td> <td>tsotsu</td> <td>tsaotsú</td> <td></td> <td>tsowtsu</td> <td>zhou</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sister</td> <td>ṫêṫam</td> <td>tsan</td> <td>tsatsae</td> <td>toza</td> <td>tsotsay</td> <td>jiejie</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>blood</td> <td>ṫûṫi</td> <td>tsiitsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tsutsï</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>knee</td> <td>twîṫam</td> <td>tts</td> <td>tytsāo</td> <td></td> <td>twetsam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wolf</td> <td>wîhî</td> <td>wiatsu</td> <td>wíatsū</td> <td>boabun</td> <td>wihatsü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>family</td> <td></td> <td>miintsu</td> <td>mytsú</td> <td>measuhi</td> <td>müntsu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>ṫ</td> <td>ts</td> <td>ts</td> <td>s</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>love</td> <td>khîṫe</td> <td>ktsan</td> <td>gitšaē</td> <td>yizã</td> <td>gitzan</td> <td></td> <td>Thok tz → ṫ</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cold</td> <td>kuṫyô</td> <td></td> <td>kutšūlū</td> <td>kuzeyu</td> <td>kutzuh</td> <td></td> <td>Muts tz → ts</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>nose</td> <td>phîṫi</td> <td>piitsi</td> <td>pitší</td> <td></td> <td>pītzi</td> <td></td> <td>Mao tz → tš</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sing</td> <td>ṫêṫamâ</td> <td>ttsawa<u>?</u></td> <td>tatšāmá</td> <td></td> <td>totzáma</td> <td></td> <td>Zele tz → z</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>vomit</td> <td>tâṫô</td> <td>tatsuh</td> <td>tatšūš</td> <td></td> <td>tatzuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spit</td> <td>tôṫô</td> <td>tutsuh</td> <td>tútšūš</td> <td></td> <td>tutzuš</td> <td>tutan</td> <td>Could be dz or tš as well.</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>know</td> <td>ṫêṫâ</td> <td>ttsa<u>?</u></td> <td>zaotšā</td> <td>toza</td> <td>dowtzah</td> <td>zhidao ?</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bear child</td> <td></td> <td>sintsih</td> <td>ytšiš</td> <td></td> <td>sintzi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>ṫ</td> <td>ts</td> <td>tš</td> <td>z</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Not much to add that wasn't covered under the initials, except that Zele provides some evidence for a voicing contrast. <p><h3><font color="#0000ff">Vowels</font></h3> The vowels were a major pain in the neck. In fact, the first time I looked at them I could hardly make anything of them— there were a huge number of correspondence sets, and no clear *e or *o cognates at all... it looked like the protolanguage had either three vowels or twelve. There was also so <i>much</i> data that it was very hard to get a handle on. <p>Looking at them again, I realized that I was paying too much attention to Mao. The other three fit in pretty well with a five-vowel system. And once that was sorted out, some of the other correspondence sets melted together. <p>The tables below are for the first vowel in the word only; restricting the analysis to these made the data much more tractable. I started a spreadsheet for the later vowels; but looking it over, it didn't seem that a full analysis would add much that I didn't already know. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *a</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>ENGLISH</td> <td>THOK</td> <td>MUTS</td> <td>MAO</td> <td>ZELE</td> <td>PROTO</td> <td>CHANGES</td> <td>CHINESE</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>father</td> <td>ttatta</td> <td>data</td> <td>zašā</td> <td></td> <td>dada</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>swim</td> <td>ttahapû</td> <td>tsafi<u>?</u></td> <td>zapí</td> <td></td> <td>dasafih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hit</td> <td>ttatô</td> <td></td> <td>zatūš</td> <td>tatu</td> <td>datuh</td> <td></td> <td>da</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>suck</td> <td>kapâ</td> <td></td> <td>kamá</td> <td></td> <td>kabá</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>four</td> <td>kata</td> <td></td> <td>kazā</td> <td></td> <td>kada</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>five</td> <td>katâhi</td> <td></td> <td>azāš</td> <td></td> <td>kada-ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>six</td> <td>katâhihwi</td> <td></td> <td>zāšys</td> <td></td> <td>kada-šišwe</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>seven</td> <td>katâṫe</td> <td></td> <td>kataé</td> <td></td> <td>kada-tey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eight</td> <td>katâṫyu</td> <td></td> <td>īka</td> <td></td> <td>kada-dyu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>nine</td> <td>katâṫîhi</td> <td></td> <td>āgazāš</td> <td></td> <td>kada-di-ši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ten</td> <td>katâṫîhihwi</td> <td></td> <td>gašys</td> <td></td> <td>kada-di-šišwe</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eleven</td> <td>katâṫîṫe</td> <td></td> <td>zātaé</td> <td></td> <td>kada-di-tey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>brother</td> <td>kakam</td> <td>kxan</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kakam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>new</td> <td>kahake</td> <td>khaxa<u>?</u></td> <td>kašága</td> <td></td> <td>kašageh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fall</td> <td>kaheṫe</td> <td></td> <td>kašaētīo</td> <td></td> <td>kašeyt-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bite</td> <td>kâ</td> <td>kajoh</td> <td>kalāoš</td> <td></td> <td>káyaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hand, year</td> <td></td> <td>ksah</td> <td>kazāš</td> <td></td> <td>kazaš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mother</td> <td>mama</td> <td>mwa</td> <td>ma</td> <td></td> <td>mama</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>turn</td> <td>nattô</td> <td></td> <td>nazāo</td> <td></td> <td>nadaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>noodle</td> <td>nayu</td> <td></td> <td>nalū</td> <td></td> <td>nayu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>house</td> <td>nêpaha</td> <td>psa</td> <td>pasaē</td> <td></td> <td>pasay</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>climb</td> <td>pâhâ</td> <td></td> <td>pasaēš</td> <td></td> <td>pasay</td> <td></td> <td>pa</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sand</td> <td></td> <td>pah</td> <td>pāš</td> <td>par</td> <td>paš</td> <td></td> <td>Ind. pasir</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>beautiful</td> <td>ipa</td> <td>pa<u>?</u>a</td> <td>palā</td> <td></td> <td>paya</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>other</td> <td></td> <td>sesa</td> <td>āza</td> <td>shazhi</td> <td>sazä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>red</td> <td>(pe)</td> <td>hafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āmā</td> <td>rapa</td> <td>šabeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>shine</td> <td>čîmâ</td> <td>hap</td> <td>āma</td> <td></td> <td>šama</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>laugh</td> <td>(hihe)</td> <td>haxih</td> <td>āšišā</td> <td></td> <td>šašïše</td> <td></td> <td>(xiao)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flower</td> <td>(onam)</td> <td>hjona</td> <td>ālaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>šayonam</td> <td></td> <td>Jp. hana?</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fight</td> <td></td> <td>taxeh</td> <td>takaēš</td> <td></td> <td>takeyš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>child</td> <td>ṫêṫi</td> <td>ttsi</td> <td>tatsi</td> <td></td> <td>tetsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>vomit</td> <td>tâṫô</td> <td>tatsuh</td> <td>tatšūš</td> <td></td> <td>tatzuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>drop</td> <td></td> <td>tja</td> <td>taelāo</td> <td></td> <td>tayaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ash</td> <td>(paṫâ)ṫačî</td> <td>tsaty</td> <td>tsazy</td> <td></td> <td>tsadi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smoke</td> <td>ṫattyu</td> <td></td> <td>tsazío</td> <td></td> <td>tsadī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>squeeze</td> <td>ṫahe</td> <td>tsah</td> <td>tsašāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsašew</td> <td></td> <td>zhaqu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>or</td> <td>ṫahu</td> <td>tsa</td> <td>tša</td> <td></td> <td>tza-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>rice</td> <td>nyaki</td> <td>njax</td> <td>lāgī</td> <td></td> <td>yagi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wheat</td> <td>mâta</td> <td>mata</td> <td>máza</td> <td>matazh</td> <td>máda</td> <td></td> <td>-</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hair</td> <td></td> <td>pa</td> <td>pá</td> <td></td> <td>pa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pine</td> <td></td> <td>jasuwy</td> <td>lásuwy</td> <td></td> <td>yasuwi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>chest</td> <td>mpu</td> <td></td> <td>āopú</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>a + consonant</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hide</td> <td></td> <td>tsamm</td> <td>tsaomī</td> <td></td> <td>tsammi</td> <td>Thok: an → ê</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>person</td> <td>nam</td> <td>na</td> <td>nao</td> <td>nam</td> <td>nam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>follow</td> <td>xêṫe</td> <td>kanta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kant-</td> <td></td> <td>gensui ?</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>aC</td> <td>aC</td> <td>ao</td> <td>am</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>It' s not hard to reconstruct all these as *a. <p>We see most of the numbers here. The grammarians of Muts and Zele seem to be my least favorite type: those that leave out the numerals. And Mao's numbers are very worn down, to the point that it wasn't clear what consonants and vowels were left, compared with the Thok forms. Examining them separately, I saw that 4-12 were built on a simple pattern all from *kada 'four'. 5-7 are just conjoints of 4 and 1-3; 8-11 add another element -dyu/di in between; and 12 is just 'three-four', *tey-kada. <p>I can't say I've figured out where all of Mao's tones come from. I note in the sound changes column when I've found a pattern— for instance, when initial *s is lost, the next vowel gets a high tone. <p>By the way, scanning these sets, don't be misled by the missing vowels in Muts. In the vowels spreadsheet I changed the background color of these so they stand out. I'm not sure when Muts loses the vowel <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *aw</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>far</td> <td>to</td> <td>ta</td> <td>tā</td> <td></td> <td>taw</td> <td>Muts/Mao aw → a</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>o</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>o</td> <td></b></td> <td>Thok aw → o</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mouth</td> <td>ka</td> <td></td> <td>kāoš</td> <td></td> <td>kaw</td> <td>Thok aw → a or o</td> <td>kou</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fur</td> <td>ma</td> <td>me</td> <td>mao</td> <td></td> <td>maw</td> <td>T/M/M aw → a/e/ao</td> <td>mao</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>forest</td> <td></td> <td>tse</td> <td>tsao</td> <td></td> <td>tsaw</td> <td>Could be *ew, but I'm too</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>head</td> <td>ta</td> <td>te</td> <td>tao</td> <td></td> <td>taw</td> <td>seduced by that 'mao'</td> <td>tou</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>a</td> <td>e</td> <td>ao</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>The first of these sets can be distinguished from *o below by the fact that the Muts reflex is a. (This used to be a bigger set... I keep moving things out of it.) There's not much reason for *aw in particular, except that it's easy to get both o and a out of it. <p>The next set can also be distinguished from *o, whose Thok and Muts reflexes are both *o. The original must be more frontal; *ew is possible too. The Mandarin words all shout out that it's a diphthong. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *e</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>flax</td> <td>maṫi</td> <td>metsi</td> <td>matsi</td> <td></td> <td>metsi</td> <td>Thok e → a</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>autumn</td> <td>nahupu</td> <td>nesufu</td> <td>nasumú</td> <td></td> <td>nesubu</td> <td> exc. if there's an ^</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sun, day, east</td> <td>(pa)</td> <td>hefa</td> <td>āma</td> <td>rabazhi</td> <td>šeba</td> <td> then it remains ê</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>west</td> <td>(phî)</td> <td>hefa<u>?</u>ii</td> <td></td> <td>rababuhi</td> <td>šebahī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fire</td> <td></td> <td>hefatsa</td> <td>amatsá</td> <td>rabasahi</td> <td>šebatse</td> <td>Mao e → a</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hot</td> <td>(paṫû)</td> <td>hefatsi<u>?</u></td> <td>āmatsi</td> <td>rabasi</td> <td>šebatsih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>warm</td> <td>(kape)</td> <td>hexafa<u>?</u></td> <td>āgamā</td> <td>ragapa</td> <td>šegabeh</td> <td>Zele e → a exc. in benir</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>right</td> <td></td> <td>se</td> <td>á</td> <td></td> <td>se</td> <td>but 'star' is odd in Thok and</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cloud</td> <td>(pu)</td> <td>sepu</td> <td>āpú</td> <td></td> <td>sepu</td> <td>Muts as well!</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>snake</td> <td>xata</td> <td>seh</td> <td>āš</td> <td></td> <td>seš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>all</td> <td></td> <td>sesowo</td> <td>āzāwáo</td> <td></td> <td>sezowo</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>south</td> <td>(khim)</td> <td>sexi</td> <td>āgio</td> <td></td> <td>segim</td> <td>Thok 'hear' has weird î</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>happy</td> <td>(ku)</td> <td>hex</td> <td>āku</td> <td></td> <td>šeku</td> <td></td> <td>(yukuai, xingfu)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>son</td> <td></td> <td>te</td> <td>ta</td> <td></td> <td>te</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>so that</td> <td></td> <td>te<u>?</u></td> <td>tá</td> <td></td> <td>teh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bad</td> <td>an</td> <td>wen</td> <td>wanu</td> <td>van</td> <td>wen</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hear, listen</td> <td>mîṫe</td> <td>mets</td> <td>matsīo</td> <td>mesea</td> <td>metsew</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>a</td> <td>e</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cliff</td> <td></td> <td>hemna</td> <td>aoná</td> <td></td> <td>šemna</td> <td>e + consonant here</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>man</td> <td>xêma</td> <td>kemma</td> <td>kaomao 'husband'</td> <td></td> <td>kemmew </table></blockquote> <br></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>guts</td> <td>ṫêmi</td> <td>tsemmi</td> <td>tsaomi</td> <td></td> <td>tsemmi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>star</td> <td>uni</td> <td>wejnih</td> <td>waniš</td> <td>benir</td> <td>weniš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>ê</td> <td>eC</td> <td>ao</td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Strangely, there are no clear e/e/e/e correspondence sets, and no clear o/o/o/o. For awhile I thought of this one as "a with something that makes it e in Muts", with a mnemonic *ä; I only had *e in checked syllables (the second set here). Finally I realized that one or more of my correspondence sets must be the original *e, either this or the next one. It's a bit arbitrary, and the original sounds might have been distinguished many ways— e/ey is just a guess. <p>'son' and 'so that' are a minimal pair for something, though it's not clear what. :) <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *ey</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>mountain</td> <td></td> <td>ke</td> <td>kae</td> <td></td> <td>key</td> <td>Thok, Zele ey → e</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hill</td> <td></td> <td>kejdi</td> <td>kaezí</td> <td></td> <td>keydi</td> <td>Thok has some oddities</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>heavy</td> <td>xemîtû</td> <td></td> <td>kaemiozī</td> <td></td> <td>keymītü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>steal</td> <td></td> <td>kejpuns</td> <td>kaépyš</td> <td></td> <td>keypuš</td> <td>Muts ey → e exc. before a stop</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>well, mine</td> <td>ṫwihi</td> <td>tssi</td> <td>saēšis 'mine'</td> <td></td> <td>seyši</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>live</td> <td>ixe</td> <td>hexa</td> <td>aēkā</td> <td>reke</td> <td>šeykä</td> <td>Mao ey → ae</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>often</td> <td>ihehyô</td> <td></td> <td>aešae</td> <td>rer</td> <td>šeysu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>three</td> <td>ṫe</td> <td>te</td> <td>taé</td> <td></td> <td>tey</td> <td>fat' may not be cognate</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>twelve</td> <td>tôkata</td> <td></td> <td>taéga</td> <td></td> <td>tey-kada</td> <td></td> <td>3'-'4'</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>egg</td> <td>ṫênwam</td> <td></td> <td>taenūwaē</td> <td></td> <td>teynuwan</td> <td></td> <td>dan ?</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>compare</td> <td>ṫehâ</td> <td>tesa<u>?</u></td> <td>taesá</td> <td></td> <td>teysah</td> <td>Thok has a difference too so</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>then</td> <td></td> <td>tse</td> <td>tsaē</td> <td></td> <td>tsey</td> <td>it does seem diff. from e</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fat</td> <td></td> <td>tjems</td> <td>tsipaē</td> <td></td> <td>tseyp-</td> <td>ey' is just a convenient guess</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>1s</td> <td>a</td> <td></td> <td>aē</td> <td></td> <td>ey</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>e</td> <td>e</td> <td>ae</td> <td>e</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>This may well be *e instead; Muts e → ae would parallel o → ao. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *i</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>love</td> <td>khîṫe</td> <td>ktsan</td> <td>gitšaē</td> <td>yizã</td> <td>gitzan</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ear</td> <td>itta</td> <td><u>?</u>ita</td> <td>īzā</td> <td></td> <td>ida</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>heart</td> <td>im</td> <td></td> <td>īo</td> <td></td> <td>šim</td> <td></td> <td>xin</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>two</td> <td>ihwi</td> <td></td> <td>īšys</td> <td></td> <td>šišwe</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pick</td> <td>ṫipô</td> <td>tsfuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tsipuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>light</td> <td>khikîtû</td> <td></td> <td>kigiozi</td> <td></td> <td>kigüdü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>grass</td> <td>minam</td> <td>mwina</td> <td>mināo</td> <td>minam</td> <td>minam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tail</td> <td>mipa</td> <td>mifa</td> <td>mipā</td> <td></td> <td>mipa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>want</td> <td>nittû</td> <td>nit</td> <td>nizīo</td> <td></td> <td>nidu-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>green</td> <td>nime</td> <td>nin</td> <td>nināo</td> <td>(nã)</td> <td>ninen</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pull</td> <td>(nyô)</td> <td></td> <td>nizīo</td> <td></td> <td>nidum ?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>throat</td> <td>wî</td> <td></td> <td>āowyš</td> <td></td> <td>wiš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>drink</td> <td></td> <td>i</td> <td>lio</td> <td></td> <td>yi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>neck</td> <td>ṫîpu</td> <td>( hy<u>?</u>uun )</td> <td>tsikamá</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>small</td> <td>mimatû</td> <td>mi</td> <td>mī</td> <td></td> <td>mi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wolf</td> <td>wîhî</td> <td>wiatsu</td> <td>wíatsū</td> <td>boabun</td> <td>wihatsü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>i</td> <td>i</td> <td>i</td> <td>i</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smell</td> <td>îhe</td> <td></td> <td>īošy</td> <td></td> <td>imši</td> <td>i + consonant</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>see</td> <td>îtû</td> <td>simti<u>?</u></td> <td>iotí</td> <td>sheati</td> <td>simtih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>some</td> <td></td> <td>gimsuh</td> <td>giusūš</td> <td>neafuri</td> <td>gimsuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>rain</td> <td>mim</td> <td>mii</td> <td>mio</td> <td></td> <td>mīm</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>water</td> <td>mîkhi</td> <td>mimki</td> <td>miogí</td> <td>meakihi</td> <td>mimki</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>frog</td> <td></td> <td>tsimho</td> <td>tsiošwā</td> <td></td> <td>tsimšV</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wing</td> <td>ṫêpam</td> <td></td> <td>tsišpāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsišpam</td> <td></td> <td>chibang</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>family</td> <td></td> <td>miintsu</td> <td>mytsú</td> <td>measuhi</td> <td>mīntsu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bear child</td> <td></td> <td>sintsih</td> <td>ytšiš</td> <td></td> <td>sintzi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>garden</td> <td>îčî</td> <td></td> <td>wyty</td> <td></td> <td>wintü</td> <td></td> <td>(yin)dao</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>woman</td> <td>khîphî</td> <td>kiispy</td> <td>kispio</td> <td></td> <td>kīspü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lead (vb)</td> <td>îtte</td> <td>iinda</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>īndä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>î</td> <td>iC</td> <td>io, y</td> <td>ea</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>These are the relatively friendly *i cognates, as well as *iC, discussed above under *m and *n. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *ī</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>nose</td> <td>phîṫi</td> <td>piitsi</td> <td>pitší</td> <td></td> <td>pītzi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lion</td> <td>îthi</td> <td>siitsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>sītsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bird</td> <td>ṫîphî</td> <td>tsiifi</td> <td>tšímī</td> <td></td> <td>tzībī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>arm</td> <td>fêpam</td> <td>piipaw</td> <td>pípao</td> <td></td> <td>pïmpam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>back</td> <td>fêpu</td> <td></td> <td>pípū</td> <td>pibuzh</td> <td>pïmpu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sheep</td> <td>mima</td> <td>miiwa</td> <td>mima</td> <td>mimazhi</td> <td>mīma</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spring</td> <td>nihipa</td> <td>niisifa</td> <td>nizipá</td> <td></td> <td>nīzipa</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>few</td> <td>pimô</td> <td>piiwu</td> <td>pimu</td> <td></td> <td>pīmuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>daughter</td> <td></td> <td>tii</td> <td>ti</td> <td></td> <td>tī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>left (dir)</td> <td></td> <td>sii</td> <td>í</td> <td></td> <td>sī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>north</td> <td>ikhim</td> <td>siixi</td> <td>īgio</td> <td>shigimi</td> <td>sīgim</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>finger</td> <td></td> <td>tsii</td> <td>tsi</td> <td></td> <td>tsī</td> <td></td> <td>(shou)zhi</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sky</td> <td>twam</td> <td>tiihen</td> <td>tílae</td> <td></td> <td>tīyen</td> <td></td> <td>tian</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sharp</td> <td>ṫe</td> <td></td> <td>tsy</td> <td></td> <td>tsï</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>do</td> <td>ne 'be'</td> <td>ni</td> <td>ni</td> <td></td> <td>nï</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>i î ê ...</td> <td>ii</td> <td>i</td> <td>i</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>I couldn't find a good conditioning environment for Muts long ii, so I just punted it back to the protolanguage. It almost looks like it happened after unvoiced consonants, but that doesn't fit miiwa and kiispy, and it breaks down completely with uu below. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *o</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>fly</td> <td>kome</td> <td></td> <td>gaomā</td> <td>home</td> <td>gomä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lie down, rest</td> <td>komô</td> <td>gwuh</td> <td>gaomūš</td> <td></td> <td>gomuš</td> <td>Muts o → 0 / not sure when</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sit</td> <td>mome</td> <td>mwun</td> <td>maomy`</td> <td></td> <td>momun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>summer</td> <td></td> <td>nofa</td> <td>naomaē</td> <td></td> <td>nobäy</td> <td>Mao o → ao</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>many</td> <td>pomî</td> <td>pwun</td> <td>paomy</td> <td></td> <td>pomü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>slow</td> <td>tome</td> <td>towa<u>?</u></td> <td>taoma</td> <td></td> <td>tomeh</td> <td>Muts 'cow' is weird</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pea</td> <td></td> <td>to<u>?</u>uu</td> <td>taowú</td> <td></td> <td>towu</td> <td>prob. suffixed or s.t.</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>go</td> <td>tohe</td> <td>tos</td> <td>taozāo</td> <td>tsoshã</td> <td>tozam </td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hunt</td> <td>ṫokû</td> <td>tsox</td> <td>tsaokīo</td> <td></td> <td>tsokü</td> <td>If Thok gets a^</td> <td>zhuigan</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tree</td> <td>ṫonam</td> <td>tsna</td> <td>tsaonāo</td> <td></td> <td>tsonam</td> <td> then o → ê</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>branch</td> <td>ṫopi</td> <td>tsfi</td> <td>tsaopí</td> <td></td> <td>tsopi</td> <td> (only 'elbow'; dunno </td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fear</td> <td>ohe</td> <td>joh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>yoše</td> <td> what's lost, maybe w!)</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>lentil</td> <td>tophî</td> <td>tfinh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>topinš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wrist</td> <td>wam</td> <td>so<u>?</u>on</td> <td>āowaē</td> <td></td> <td>sowan</td> <td></td> <td>wan</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cow</td> <td>nona</td> <td>nynoh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>non?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sister</td> <td>ṫêṫam</td> <td>tsan</td> <td>tsatsae</td> <td>toza</td> <td>tsotsay</td> <td></td> <td>jiejie</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>o</td> <td>o, 0</td> <td>ao</td> <td>o</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>elbow</td> <td>ṫêṫu</td> <td>tsotsu</td> <td>tsaotsú</td> <td></td> <td>tsowtsu</td> <td>ow = o in all but Thok</td> <td>zhou</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>throw</td> <td>ṫohî</td> <td>tssams</td> <td>tšaosāos</td> <td></td> <td>tzosams</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>know</td> <td>ṫêṫâ</td> <td>ttsa<u>?</u></td> <td>zaotšā</td> <td>toza</td> <td>dowtzah</td> <td></td> <td>zhidao ?</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sing</td> <td>ṫêṫamâ</td> <td>ttsawa<u>?</u></td> <td>tatšāmá</td> <td>sumazhi</td> <td>totzámah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>say</td> <td>ôtâ (?)</td> <td>psa<u>?</u></td> <td>pazá</td> <td>pota</td> <td>podah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>ê</td> <td>o, 0</td> <td>ao, a</td> <td>o</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Those ao in Mao were a big headache— they suggested a diphthong, and yet were clearly sometimes reflexes of *mC. Finally, I realized that I was looking too closely at Mao and that the simplest original was just *o. <p>As the sound changes column notes, when any of these words have a circumflex in Thok the vowel is ê rather than ô. But the circumflex usually indicates missing material, and what was lost here? Hard to say, but *ow at least gives something to lose, and relates *tsowtsu to Mandarin <i>zhou</i>. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *ū</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>who</td> <td></td> <td>suu</td> <td>zu</td> <td></td> <td>sū ?</td> <td>Thok: if ^ due to elision</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>root</td> <td>kunam</td> <td>guuna</td> <td>gunao</td> <td></td> <td>gūnam</td> <td> then u → î</td> <td>genben</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>young</td> <td>uhu</td> <td>huuhu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>šūhu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>pig</td> <td></td> <td>tsuutsu</td> <td>tsú</td> <td></td> <td>tsū</td> <td>Can't see any cond. factors</td> <td>zhu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>earth, dirt</td> <td>uhî</td> <td>uuho<u>?</u>o</td> <td>wušāowá</td> <td></td> <td>wūšowo</td> <td>so I assume ū is original</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sea</td> <td></td> <td>duu</td> <td>zú</td> <td>tuzh</td> <td>dū</td> <td>Goes to u in all but Muts.</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tongue</td> <td>ôta</td> <td>suut</td> <td>útao</td> <td></td> <td>sūtaw</td> <td></td> <td>shetou</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>black</td> <td>uttû</td> <td>juuti<u>?</u></td> <td>ludī</td> <td></td> <td>yūdih</td> <td>Mao u → y after unvoiced</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>stone</td> <td>ṫuma</td> <td>tsuuwa</td> <td>tsuma</td> <td></td> <td>tsūma</td> <td> (but also after 2 of 3 w!)</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mushroom</td> <td>muhu</td> <td>muuhu</td> <td>mú</td> <td></td> <td>mūšu</td> <td></td> <td>mogu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>ugly</td> <td>ṫînu</td> <td>tsuunv</td> <td>tsynu</td> <td></td> <td>tsūšu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>herd</td> <td>kuni</td> <td>kuunii</td> <td>kylí</td> <td></td> <td>kūnyī</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>dog</td> <td>îhî</td> <td></td> <td>wyš</td> <td></td> <td>wuš</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sow</td> <td>phîṫâ</td> <td>ptsun</td> <td>putsyš</td> <td></td> <td>putsun</td> <td></td> <td>bozhong</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>skin</td> <td>phînî</td> <td>puunnis</td> <td>pynis</td> <td></td> <td>pūnnis</td> <td>ū + cons.</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>flow</td> <td></td> <td>uunsa</td> <td>wysāo</td> <td></td> <td>wūnsaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>snow</td> <td>čîmî</td> <td>tuunmam</td> <td>tymáo</td> <td></td> <td>tūnmam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>u</td> <td>uu</td> <td>u</td> <td>u</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Again, I can't say where long u comes from in Muts— this seems like a pretty miscellaneous set of environments. <p>The Mao u/y alternation worried me a lot. It suggests umlaut, but that doesn't account for wysāo or tymáo. Here and in some other sets it looks like the conditioning factor is the voicelessness of the preceding consonant (except for <i>tsuma</i>). <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *ey</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>winter</td> <td>kû</td> <td>ku<u>?</u>û</td> <td>kulú</td> <td></td> <td>kuyu</td> <td>Generally u remains.</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>tie</td> <td>nû</td> <td></td> <td>nuwī</td> <td></td> <td>nuwi</td> <td>If Thok gets a^</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>blood</td> <td>ṫûṫi</td> <td>tsiitsi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tsutsï</td> <td> then u → ô</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bone</td> <td>ku</td> <td>gu</td> <td>gú</td> <td></td> <td>gu</td> <td></td> <td>gu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>horn</td> <td></td> <td>ku</td> <td>kú</td> <td></td> <td>ku</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>priest</td> <td>kuhu</td> <td></td> <td>kū</td> <td></td> <td>kuhu</td> <td>Oddities:</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>temple</td> <td>kuha</td> <td></td> <td>kūpas</td> <td></td> <td>kupa</td> <td>Thok û in 3 words</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>crops</td> <td>kôhi</td> <td>kuhsi</td> <td>kus</td> <td></td> <td>kussi</td> <td>Thok čîmê</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cold</td> <td>kuṫyô</td> <td></td> <td>kutšūlū</td> <td>kuzeyu</td> <td>kutzuh</td> <td>Muts û in 3 words</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>kick</td> <td></td> <td>û</td> <td>lū</td> <td></td> <td>yu</td> <td>Mao tones</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>deer</td> <td>uka</td> <td>ûxa</td> <td>lukā 'reindeer'</td> <td></td> <td>yuka</td> <td>Mao y in 3 words</td> <td>lu</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>feather</td> <td>uma</td> <td></td> <td>lumāo</td> <td></td> <td>yumaw</td> <td></td> <td>yumao</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>eye</td> <td>mu</td> <td>mu</td> <td>mú</td> <td></td> <td>mu</td> <td></td> <td>-</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fish</td> <td>pumu</td> <td>pwu</td> <td>pumy`</td> <td></td> <td>pumu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>long</td> <td></td> <td>psoh</td> <td>pusāoš</td> <td></td> <td>pusaws</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>breast, chest</td> <td>pômî</td> <td>puhmun</td> <td>pušmyš</td> <td></td> <td>pušmin</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>cut</td> <td></td> <td>tsuhkin</td> <td>tšušky`</td> <td></td> <td>tzuškin</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>split</td> <td>ṫômô</td> <td>tsuhma</td> <td>tšušmāo</td> <td></td> <td>tzušmaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>foot</td> <td>ṫu</td> <td>tsu</td> <td>tsú</td> <td></td> <td>tsu</td> <td></td> <td>jiao</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>copper</td> <td></td> <td>tsnohi</td> <td>tsunūi</td> <td></td> <td>tsunohi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>enemy</td> <td></td> <td>tuts</td> <td>tutā</td> <td></td> <td>tut-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>2s</td> <td>tu</td> <td></td> <td>tú</td> <td></td> <td>tu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spit</td> <td>tôṫô</td> <td>tutsuh</td> <td>tútšūš</td> <td></td> <td>tutzuš</td> <td></td> <td>tutan</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>thin</td> <td>ume</td> <td></td> <td>ūma</td> <td></td> <td>umä</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>if</td> <td></td> <td><u>?</u>wu<u>?</u></td> <td>ūmú</td> <td></td> <td>wumuh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sleep, dream</td> <td>upû</td> <td>sufuf</td> <td>ūmū</td> <td>fufub</td> <td>subub</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>blow</td> <td>une</td> <td></td> <td>unu</td> <td></td> <td>unu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>louse</td> <td></td> <td>sufimsin</td> <td>ūpīos</td> <td></td> <td>supims-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>hate</td> <td>uhâ</td> <td>suha<u>?</u></td> <td>ūšá</td> <td></td> <td>sušah</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>breath, wind</td> <td>uhiphi</td> <td></td> <td>ūšipí</td> <td>roazh ?</td> <td>ušipi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>never</td> <td>uhôhap</td> <td></td> <td>ūúšae</td> <td></td> <td>uhušay</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>freeze</td> <td></td> <td>wûwi<u>?</u></td> <td>wumí</td> <td></td> <td>wumih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>silver</td> <td>(fê)ṫuma</td> <td></td> <td>zumao</td> <td></td> <td>dumaw</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>nut, seed</td> <td>kuxî</td> <td>kxam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>kumC</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>mouse</td> <td>uhu</td> <td>sus 'rat'</td> <td></td> <td>fush</td> <td>sus</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>night</td> <td>utta</td> <td>ûta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>uda</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>take</td> <td>tume</td> <td>twin</td> <td>tumy`</td> <td></td> <td>tumi</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>u</td> <td>u</td> <td>u</td> <td>u</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>farm</td> <td></td> <td>tsuntin</td> <td>tsyzyš</td> <td></td> <td>tsuntu</td> <td>u + cons.</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>white</td> <td>čîmê</td> <td>tunmam</td> <td>tymao</td> <td></td> <td>tunmäm</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>î</td> <td>uC</td> <td>yC</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>Pretty clear *u, except where it's not. I couldn't tell you where Muts gets these û or where the tones in Mao come from. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *ü</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>leg</td> <td>tu</td> <td>tu</td> <td>ty`</td> <td></td> <td>tuy</td> <td></td> <td>tui</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>and</td> <td>u</td> <td></td> <td>y`</td> <td></td> <td>ü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>metal</td> <td>ṫumaxa</td> <td></td> <td>tšimaetú</td> <td></td> <td>tzümayt-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>wash</td> <td>ûhe</td> <td>sis</td> <td>ís</td> <td></td> <td>süs-</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>smooth</td> <td>ûhamyu</td> <td></td> <td>isāmīo</td> <td></td> <td>üsamyu</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>dig</td> <td>ahô</td> <td>ys</td> <td>wīs</td> <td></td> <td>wüs</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>u</td> <td>i y</td> <td>i y</td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>strong</td> <td>unî</td> <td></td> <td>āonyš</td> <td></td> <td>uwni</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>carry</td> <td>upe</td> <td></td> <td>āopy`</td> <td></td> <td>uwp?</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>horse</td> <td>uha</td> <td>hyha</td> <td>āoša</td> <td></td> <td>šuwša</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>u</td> <td>y</td> <td>ao</td> <td></td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>'Leg' seems taken from Mandarin, which at least suggests that something more than *u is going on here, especially since *tu normally becomes u in Mao— compare the 2s pronoun tú, or tutā 'enemy'. <p>The next few words are a grab bag of inexplicables: something that goes to *u in Thok and *i or *y in the others. *ü is just a possibility. <p>The remaining words are another odd puzzle; I don't think there's enough data to really see what's going on. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *we</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>argue</td> <td>mwitâ</td> <td>mûsa<u>?</u></td> <td>mutá</td> <td></td> <td>mwetah</td> <td>Thok tyam lost it entirely</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>think</td> <td>mwîṫû</td> <td>mûtsi<u>?</u></td> <td>mutsí</td> <td></td> <td>mwetsih</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>sew</td> <td>nwihe</td> <td>nûs</td> <td>nusīo</td> <td></td> <td>nwese</td> <td>Muts we → û</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>river</td> <td>ttwiku</td> <td>dûûxu</td> <td>zugú</td> <td></td> <td>zwegu</td> <td> but u in hu<u>?</u>ytsim, kuu</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>clothes</td> <td>mwipa</td> <td>mûfa</td> <td>mupā</td> <td>mepazh</td> <td>mwepa</td> <td> and → 0 in 2 words</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fox</td> <td>wiṫî</td> <td>hu<u>?</u>ytsim</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>šwetsim</td> <td></td> <td>(huli)</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>beech</td> <td>ṫwî</td> <td>tsy<u>?</u>uun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>tswehun ?</td> <td>Mao we → u</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>belly</td> <td>twî</td> <td>tû<u>?</u>iih</td> <td>tylīš</td> <td></td> <td>tweyī</td> <td> but → y after unvoiced</td> <td>duzi</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>stop</td> <td>twixe</td> <td>tûk</td> <td>tygīo</td> <td>tseyea</td> <td>tswegim</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>die</td> <td>wime</td> <td>hwun</td> <td>ymy</td> <td>remoa</td> <td>šwemo</td> <td>Zele we → e</td> <td>xiaomo</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>kill</td> <td>wihâ</td> <td>hûsam</td> <td>ysaoš</td> <td></td> <td>šwesa</td> <td></td> <td>shasi</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>spirit</td> <td>kwi</td> <td>kuu</td> <td>ky`</td> <td></td> <td>kwe</td> <td></td> <td>gui</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>knee</td> <td>twîtham</td> <td>tts</td> <td>tytsāo</td> <td></td> <td>twetsam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>seed</td> <td>tyam</td> <td>tû<u>?</u>e</td> <td>tylāo</td> <td></td> <td>tweyam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>wi</td> <td>û</td> <td>u</td> <td>e</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>This, on the other hand, I really like. I originally had these as *ü too. Finally I noticed the common <i>wi </i>in Thok, and that it almost always paralleled û (unrounded u) in Muts. Deducing the original is another story. An initial *w is a no-brainer; but what's the vowel after it? *e is suggested by Zele and by Mandarin <i>gui </i>(pronounced <i>guei</i>). <p>Of course, how is it we have *wi but very little *we, *wa, *wo? Maybe we do, but the patterns just weren't as striking. <h4><font color="#0000ff">Vowel *yu</font></h4> <blockquote><table> <tr><td>month, moon</td> <td>kyumi</td> <td>kyywi</td> <td>kiomi</td> <td></td> <td>kyumi</td> <td>Muts yu → y</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>face</td> <td>myumyu</td> <td>mywyh</td> <td>miomīoš</td> <td></td> <td>myumyus</td> <td> 'month' is oddly yy</td> <td>mian</td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>give</td> <td></td> <td>nysa<u>?</u></td> <td>niotá</td> <td></td> <td>nyuta</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>call</td> <td>pyutâ</td> <td></td> <td>piotá</td> <td></td> <td>pyutá</td> <td>Mao yu → io</td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>play</td> <td></td> <td>sysi<u>?</u></td> <td>īosí</td> <td></td> <td>syusih</td> <td> finally, → ī </td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>girl</td> <td>tyukam</td> <td></td> <td>tiokāo</td> <td></td> <td>tyukam</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fast</td> <td>tyume</td> <td>tywa<u>?</u></td> <td>tioma</td> <td></td> <td>tyumeh</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>near</td> <td>tyu</td> <td>ty</td> <td>tī</td> <td></td> <td>tyü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>fog, mist</td> <td></td> <td>sysimma</td> <td>iomā</td> <td></td> <td>syusimma</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>bug</td> <td>yuhi</td> <td>sysi</td> <td>iozīo</td> <td></td> <td>syuzü</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td>come</td> <td></td> <td>tsun</td> <td>tiosy`</td> <td></td> <td>tyusun</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> <tr><td></td> <td><b>yu</td> <td>y</td> <td>io</td> <td></b></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td></tr> </table></blockquote> <br>For this set, *yu roughly shoulders aside most other possibilities, thanks to the reflex io in Mao. This is phonetically /iw/, but it's quite plausible that the spelling reflects an earlier pronunciation. <p>Again, it's a little odd not to see clear parallels *ya, *ye, etc. <hr> <center><A HREF="default.html"><img src="home.gif"></A></center> </BODY></HTML>