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<H1><a name="contents">Obenzayet • <span style="font-family: 'VerdurianNormal'">Curan Ubi%cayak</span></a></H1>
<p><a href="#Introduction"><b>Introduction</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#History">History and influences</a>
— <a href="#Sources">Sources</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Phonology"><b>Phonology</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#Consonants">Consonants</a>
— <a href="#Vowels">Vowels</a>
— <a href="#Stress">Stress</a>
— <a href="#Nesian">Nešian</a>
— <a href="#Orthography">Orthography</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Morphology"><b>Morphology</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#Nouns">Nouns</a>
— <a href="#Adjectives">Adjectives</a>
— <a href="#Pronouns">Pronouns</a>
— <a href="#Verbs">Verbs</a>
— <a href="#Numbers">Numbers</a>
— <a href="#Derivational">Derivational </a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Syntax"><b>Syntax</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#VSO">Sentence order</a>
— <a href="#PronounArg">Pronouns</a>
— <a href="#NP">NP order</a>
— <a href="#Negatives">Negatives</a>
— <a href="#Questions">Questions</a>
— <a href="#Interrogatives">Interrogatives</a>
— <a href="#Copula">Copula</a>
— <a href="#Possession">Possession</a>
— <a href="#Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a>
— <a href="#Dative">Dative</a>
— <a href="#Prepositions">Prepositions</a>
— <a href="#Tense">Tense</a>
— <a href="#Infinitives">Infinitives</a>
— <a href="#Subordination">Subordination</a>
— <a href="#Comparatives">Comparatives</a>
— <a href="#Causatives">Causatives</a>
— <a href="#Passive">Passive </a>
— <a href="#Place">Place </a>
— <a href="#Time">Time </a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Semantic"><b>Semantic fields</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#Topo">Places/Languages</a>
— <a href="#Names">Names</a>
— <a href="#Gods">Gods</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Sample1"><b>Samples</b></a> — <i>
<a href="#Sample1">The boy and the calf</a> –
<a href="#Sample2">I know a boy</a> </i>
<p><a href="#Lexicon"><b>Lexicon</b></a> —
<i> <a href="#ONaviu">Other Naviu </a> </i>
<h2><a name="Introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
The Naviu languages include most of the Southern nomads who dominate the Barbarian Plain, and who have periodically invaded both Eretald and Xengiman.
<p>Modern members of the family include <b>Küronet, Eluyet, Makši, Mixain, Seia</b>, and <b>Obenzayet</b>. The nation of Bešbalic commemorates the name of the <b>Bešbalicu</b>, a Naviu tribe which once lived in that region; but the Bešbalicu language is extinct. <b>Gelyet</b>, the language of the historically most important Naviu, is attested only scantily, due to the tribulations of the Dark Years. Of course, the Gelyet themselves were one of those tribulations.
<p>The best attested Naviu language is <b>Obenzayet</b>, the language of the small country of Obenzaya. It has been written since about 3400, and is the chief Naviu contributor to reconstructions of proto-Eastern— a very important contribution, since Obenzayet is a conservative language which has retained many proto-Eastern features not found in any other Eastern language. This document focuses on the classical Obenzayet language, as spoken by the nomads.
<i>
<center><img src="illo/Obenzaya.png">
<br/>A map of Obenzaya and nearby lands, labeled in Obenzayet.
<br/>(This map, though not the labels, dates to 1981.)
</center>
<blockquote>Chronological note: This document is written with 3550 as the current date. This allows us to use the best grammars of what would later be called Classical Obenzayet, the form of the language important in proto-Eastern studies. Later varieties of Obenzayet lose many of the features that interest Easternists.
<br/>—M.R., December 2020
</blockquote>
</i>
<h3><a name="History">History and influences</a></h3>
The Naviu were a component of the ancient Easterners, and in the great expansion of the Eastern peoples from Bolon beginning around ZE -350, the Naviu expanded into the Barbarian Plain, displacing the Somoyi-Meťelyi. For more than two thousand years they lived as nomads on the Plain, or in small villages along the great rivers that cross the arid Plain bringing the waters fo the Diqun Bormai to Eretald: the Eärdur, the Selnara, the Meuna, the Madíš, and the Hasun.
Neither the Naviu nor their Eastern ancestors knew urbanization, writing, or agriculture at more than the garden level; it is not surprising, then, that the most ancient Naviu vocabulary has no words relating to these technologies. Even the names of crops which can be traced back to Eastern are mostly lost in Naviu; <b>kaɣra</b> < *<i>xogre</i>, ‘barley’ in most of the Eastern languages, generalized to ‘grain’ in Naviu.
<p>In classical times words relating to trading (e.g. <b>kurag</b> ‘buy’, <b>lakag</b> ‘trade’, <b>lata</b> ‘coin’, <b>makšana</b> ‘town’, <b>zaraz</b> ‘bread’) were borrowed from Caďinor. There is also a tier of words from Cuêzi (e.g. <b>banaz</b> ‘way’, <b>baḡuɫ</b> ‘quarter’, <b>hluṯiz</b> ‘evil’, <b>itrïn</b> ‘heart’, <b>kailiraz</b> ‘ballad’, <b>kumayaz</b> ‘peace’, <b>mavuḏaz</b> ‘iron’, <b>nümuɫ</b> ‘god’, <b>rutiz</b> ‘good’, <b>uraz</b> ‘bear’, <b>zintaz</b> ‘city’).
<p>Words relating to the nomadic environment were borrowed from Meťelyi (<b>vuk</b> ‘primary horse’, <b>ɣraba</b> ‘wadi’, <b>zvaiɫ</b> ‘calf’, <b>narmag</b> ‘give suck (of mares)’, <b>bägaz</b> ‘horsetail’, <b></b> ‘a hallucinogen’, <b>vitraz</b> ‘water source’, <b>bisbalag</b> ‘share loot’) or from Coruo (<b>müɫa</b> ‘saddle’, <b>aisag</b> ‘drink one’s horse’s blood’, <b>sahi</b> ‘mange’, <b>nütavag</b> ‘camp’, <b>bagiɫ</b> ‘vision’).
<p>What were Dark Years in Eretald were good times for the Naviu, one tribe of which, the Gelyet, created the greatest empire in the history of Ereláe. Naturally, the Naviu languages picked up or created a good deal of vocabulary relating to the military or to administration during these years.
<p>The Obenzayet themselves occupy a small southern section of Eretald, between Kačanza, Bešbalic, and Deštai, as they have for about six hundred years. During this time, while never wholly giving up herding, they have taken more and more to living in cities and to agriculture, and the vocabulary for these pursuits has been borrowed almost entirely from (southern varieties of) Verdurian— for instance, <b>rikultag</b> ‘harvest’, <b>rilag</b> ‘sow’, <b>riznai</b> ‘barn’, <b>ivruɫ</b> ‘book’, <b>atsanz</b> ‘school’, <b>hivuɫ</b> ‘mayor’, <b>hizunz</b> ‘policeman’, <b>daluz</b> ‘king’.
<p>The nomads have retained their own ancient religion, but those who have settled down have mostly adopted Caďinorian religions. The most important families adopted the most prestigious of these, Caďinorian polytheism, and religious terminology along with it: <b>azuns</b> ‘priest’, <b>himnai</b> ‘temple’, <b>klatana</b> ‘seminary’, <b>nakuyaz</b> ‘adulthood ceremony’, <b>Ikšarä</b> ‘the afterworld’; there are also loan-translations like <b>diɫa maharkäʔ</b> ‘place of darkness, Hell’, <b>vraskaiz</b> ‘ancestral spirit’, <b>natïnama</b> ‘birth-meal’.
<p>The common people have been more likely to adopt Eleďát, the majority religion in the Eärdur valley, and as a result have borrowed words such as <b>azistun</b> ‘church’, <b>zurimaz</b> ‘mass’, <b>zavag</b> ‘sin’, <b>Ailadanz</b> ‘Eleď’.
<p>A tier of words from Elkarîl reflects the fact that, for thousands of years, the elcari have wandered the Plain trading metals and tools for horse products and steppe plants. Thus <b>baliḏ</b> silver, <b>ḵitsiḏ</b> gold, <b>ludaŋ</b> steel, <b>makiḏ</b> diamond, <b>rimiḏ</b> emerald, <b>sarz</b> sword, <b>tsur</b> glass, <b>gits</b> helmet, <b>kiluŋ</b> mercury, <b>mikšak</b> kohl, <b>mikriḏ</b> obsidian. That the roving elcari offered services besides metallurgy is attested by the word <b>tiluḏag</b> ‘heal’.
<h3><a name="Sources">Sources</a></h3>
The first published sources on Obenzayet are wordlists provided by interested traders and diplomats, and the list of glosses— <i>Colaprec Celmetecië Ubenkayan (The Helper for Translators Into Obenzayet)</i>— compiled by Eleďe missionaries in the 3380s. Obenzayans started to write documents, mostly administrative or religious in nature, from about 3400.
<p>The first scholarly treatment is Osör <b>Ružeon</b>’s Sarise (Eastern), 3442, which contained a grammatical sketch of the language— really a morphological sketch, as its syntax section was less than a page. Estanesa <b>Sarileya</b>’s <i>Dekaši Perëi Řonei (Discovery of the First Language)</i>, 3473, offers corrections (e.g. the recognition of velarization) and a longer wordlist. Previous Almeological information was based on these sources.
<p>Though Ružeon was the first to realize the importance of Obenzayet for Eastern studies, it was Sarileya who sent students to Obenzaya to gather information. One was the folklorist Gayo <b>Osörey</b>, who published <i>Racontî Obenzaye (Tales of Obenzaya)</i> in 3463. Another was the Barakhinei scholar <b>Fisnava</b> of Nhêsnor. His excellent grammar was not finished till 3493.
<p>This scholarly attention interested the king of Obenzaya, <b>Ataviz IV</b>. He sent one of his sons, <b>Vaŋkritiz</b>, to study at the University of Verduria and to write a definitive grammar and dictionary. His masterful <i>Aluatas i Obenzayet (Grammar of Obenzayet)</i> was completed in 3532, building on the northern scholars’ work but adding a native’s indispensible input. His Obenzayet translation, <b>Alutaz Ḵuranaʔ Ubiŋkayaʔ</b>, was the first full book printed in Vižaya.
<p>The University’s <i>Aluatas Šriftanáei Obenzaye (University Obenzayan Grammar)</i> was published in 3544 by Ferénica <b>Smire</b> and her Obenzayan informant Pansäla <b>Arabäʔ</b>. Though it is not as thorough as Vaŋkritiz, it is more informed about other Eastern (and Western) languages, and also covers dialectal variation.
<h2><a name="Phonology">Phonology</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Consonants">Consonants</a></h3>
The consonantal inventory of Obenzayet is as follows:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> labial</td> <td> alveolar</td> <td> velar</td> <td> glottal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> stops</td> <td> <b> p b</b> </td> <td> <b> t d</b> </td> <td> <b> k g</b> </td> <td> <b> ʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> velarized</td> <td> <b> pˠ bˠ </b> </td> <td> <b> tˠ dˠ</b> </td> <td> <b> kˠ gˠ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> fricatives</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> s</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> h</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> </td> <td> <b> v</b> </td> <td> <b> z</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> nasals</td> <td> <b> m</b> </td> <td> <b> n</b> </td> <td> <b> ŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#D0A000"> liquids</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> l r ɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> semivowels</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> y</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Perhaps the most striking aspect of the system is the complete set of <b>velarized</b> stops. If you’re not sure how to produce the velarized sounds, start with velarized <b>ɫ</b>, which is very much like the English dark <i>l</i> in <i>full</i>, only with the tongue even farther back in the mouth (if you can say <b>ɫ</b> and then <i>o</i> without moving the tongue, it’s in about the right place). Then, keeping the tongue in position for <b>ɫ</b>, pronounce the other velarized consonants.
<p>There should be a very sharp distinction between <b>p</b> and <b>pˠ</b>, <b>k</b> and <b>kˠ</b>, etc. In the case of the velars, this is emphasized by a fronted articulation; in some Naviu languages /k/ has become palatalized to /c/ or /č/.
<p>Though English dark <i>l</i> as in <i>full</i> approximates <b>ɫ</b>, note that this sound can begin a syllable, as in <b>muɫa</b>.
<p>In my transliteration I don't use the IPA symbols pˠ bˠ or p̴ b̴ etc., but the simpler <b>p̄ ṯ ḵ ḇ ḏ ḡ</b>. This matches the orthography. I’m using the Unicode characters, but underlining is also fine.
<p>The Obenzayet s is not dental, but somewhat retracted, and without the sharp hissing sound of the English or Verdurian s. Adjacent to a velar or velarized consonant it becomes [ʃ]; thus /ksuṯ/ = [kʃutˠ].
<p>When borrowing words, Caďinor/Verdurian <b>k</b> /q/ sounds to the Obenzayans like their <b>ḵ</b>: <i>lenka</i> ‘remedy’ > <b>liŋḵa</b>. They also hear Elkarîl implosives as velarized: <i>belidd</i> ‘silver’ > <b>baliḏ</b>. The clusters <i>rd</i> or <i>ld</i> are likely to be heard as <b>ḏ</b>: <i>Verdúria</i> > <b>Vaḏira</b>, <i>Eretald</i> > <b>Ritaḏ</b>, Elk. <i>tlyôrd</i> ‘heal’ > <b>tiluḏag</b>.
<h3><a name="Vowels">Vowels</a></h3>
The vowel system is particularly simple, and includes a length distinction.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b>i ī</b> </td> <td> </td> <td> <b> u ū</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> <b> a ā </b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The long vowels <b>ā ī ū</b> are transliterated <b>ä ï ü</b>, following the orthography.
<p>The short vowels have a tendency to be laxed in closed syllables; thus the self-designation <b>Ubiŋkauiʔ</b> sounded to the (Coruo-speaking) Curiyans like <i>Obengyawet</i>, which after some sound changes appeared in Verdurian as <i>Obenzayet</i>.
<p>The proto-Naviu three-vowel system derives from a five-vowel system in proto-Eastern; the low vowels in the protolanguage have all merged with a. Some Naviu languages have innovated new vowels (e.g. Eluyet) or borrowed them from neighboring languages (e.g. Seia), but Obenzayet has preserved the purity of the proto-Naviu vowels.
<p>Though proto-Eastern *o *e became <b>a</b>, in historical times Obenzayans borrowed other languages’ <i>o e</i> as <b>u i</b>, e.g. Verdurian <i>plero</i> ‘pleasure’ > <b>pliruɫ</b>.
<h3><a name="Stress">Stress</a></h3>
The stress rules:
<ul>
<li>Stress the last vowel of the root.
<br/> <b>si</b>n-ä, <b>ai</b>t-a, gä<b>la</b>-ra, <b>lä</b>l-aɫi, mi<b>ras</b>t-az</b>
<li>But for verbs with an infix (e.g. the past conditional), stress the infix.
<br/> lä<b>l-i</b>z-aɫi, lä<b>l-an</b>d-amu
<li>And if the ending starts with a long vowel, stress it.
<br/> lä<b>l-ä</b>tu, läl-an<b>d-ä</b>tu
</ul>
As shown, try to make syllables end in a vowel.
<h3><a name="Nesian">Nešian</a></h3>
From the viewpoint of both the remaining nomads, and Eretaldan scholars of Proto-Eastern, the language of the agriculturalists and the townspeople of the capital, <b>Viɣä</b> (Vižaya), is corrupt and boringly Verdurianized. Many of the residents of the Neši valley speak only Verdurian, and bilinguals often speak atrocious Obenzayet.
<p>Phonologically, Nešian is notable for certain simplifications:
<ul>
<li>The glottal stop <b>ʔ</b> is lost. This affects the case system quite a bit.
<li>The velarized stops are imperfectly mastered. They’re often approximated to Verdurian phonology by turning them into <i>pw, tw, kw</i> etc., though <b>ḵ ḡ</b> are pronounced like Verdurian <i>k</i> /q/.
<li>Velarized <b>ɫ</b> is pronounced [w].
</ul>
The major difference, however, is lexical. Obenzayet has always been open to borrowings, but Nešian has borrowed scores of Verdurian words for which there was a perfectly good native equivalent (e.g. <b>ḵist</b> ‘type’ for <b>käḵuɫ</b>), or even a close cognate (e.g. <b>lyubag</b> ‘love’ for <b>lüvag</b>).
<p>Vaŋkritiz, the author of the standard grammar, though he lived in Vižaya, attempted to record the pure language of the nomads, as did the folklorist Osörey. The University grammar is the best source on Nešian.
<h3><a name="Orthography">Orthography</a></h3>
Obenzayet (the only written Naviu language) is written using the Caďinorian alphabet. The standard orthography (as established by Vaŋkritiz) is as follows:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> labial</td> <td> alveolar</td> <td> velar</td> <td> glottal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> stops</td>
<td> <tt> p b</tt> </td>
<td> <tt> t d</tt> </td>
<td> <tt> c g</tt> </td>
<td> <tt> k</tt> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> velarized</td>
<td> <tt> <u>p</u> <u>b</tt> </td>
<td> <tt> <u>t</u> <u>d</u></tt> </td>
<td> <tt> <u>c</u> <u>g</u></tt> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> fricatives</td>
<td></td>
<td> <tt> s</tt> </td>
<td></td>
<td> <tt> h</tt> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> </td>
<td> <tt> v</tt> </td>
<td> <tt> z</tt> </td>
<td> <tt> ≈</tt> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> nasals</td>
<td> <tt> m</tt> </td>
<td> <tt> n</tt> </td>
<td> <tt> %</tt> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> liquids</td> <td> <b> </b> </td>
<td> <tt> l r ¬</tt> </td>
</tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> semivowels</td> <td> <b> </b> </td>
<td> <tt> y</tt> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The vowels <b>a i u</b> are, naturally, <tt>a i u</tt>. The long vowels are written <tt>ä ï ü</tt> (<b>ä ï ü</b>). This conflicts with the orthography of Cuêzi (<tt>à ì ù</tt>), but using ¨ for length matches Verdurian ä, and in general gives the script a more Verdurian appearance.
<p>When Obenzayet was first written, no distinction was made between standard and velarized consonants, since Verdurian does not make the distinction. This proved unsatisfactory to the Obenzayans. The underline was used as a placeholder for a better option, but when none achieved consensus, it was officially adopted.
<p>Early writers used Flaidish <tt>q</tt> (ʔ) for <b>ŋ</b>, but it was easily confused for <tt>¬</tt>. Vaŋkritiz introduced <tt>%</tt> from linguistic practice.
<p>The use of <tt>k</tt> (Verdurian <i>k</i> /q/) for the glottal stop <b>ʔ</b> is a fairly clever use of the available orthographic resources. (This has caused some confusion in the study of Eluyet, native Eluyek— does this represent /ʔ/ or /k/? The scholarly consensus is that Eluyet did retain a velar stop, though it had changed to a glottal stop by the 3500s.)
<p>The use of <tt>≈</tt> for <b>ɣ</b> makes phonological sense— it probably once shared a place of articulation with <tt>h</tt> <b>h</b>.
<p><tt>¬</tt> <b>ɫ</b> is taken from Ismaîn.
<p><b>s</b> is written <tt>ß</tt> (<b>š</b>) when fricativized (that is, in proximity to a velar or velarized consonant). Verdurian loanwords with <i>š</i> are also written with <tt>ß</tt>— thus <tt>atßanz</tt> <b>atsanz</b> ‘school’. Monolingual speakers pronounce these as [s], but bilinguals may use [š] to show off their knowledge.
<p>w appears as an allophone in some forms, e.g. <b>zintakaui</b> [zin-ta-ka-wi]. But it never appear in roots and of course has no letter. It does appear in the interjection <b>uau</b> ‘turn left!’ [waw].
<p>When endings conflict in voicing or velarization, they assimilate to the previous consonant: e.g. <b>rud- + ka</b> = [rudga] ‘with a dog’, <b>siz- + -kaiz</b> = [sizgaiz] ‘vampire’, <b>kšuṯ- + -ta</b> = [kʃuṯṯa] ‘deceived’. But a morphonemic spelling is preferred: <b>rudka, sizkaiz, kšuṯta</b>.
<p>Exceptions: numbers— <b>sata + dakš = satakš</b> ‘60’— and the suffix <b>-tiz</b>.
<h2><a name="Morphology">Morphology</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Nouns">Nouns</a></h3>
Nouns are declined by case, number, and gender. There are three <b>genders</b> (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and five <b>cases</b> (nominative, genitive, accusative, instrumental, and locative).
<p>Alone among the Eastern languages, Naviu preserves the proto-Eastern stem vowels (SV) as a feature of both declension and conjugation— which makes Naviu morphology rather simpler than most of the other inflected Eastern languages. All forms have the model
<blockquote>
Root + SV + case ending
</blockquote>
The case ending does vary somewhat by number and gender, so it is given in the first column of each table below.
<p>Some apparent irregularities are due to spelling conventions:
<ul>
<li> <b>y</b> becomes <b>i</b> before a consonant, and <b>ai</b> becomes <b>ay</b> before a vowel; thus /ayt-ai-aɫ/ is written <b>aitayaɫ</b>.
<li> Sequences of two identical vowels, even if they result from adding an inflection, are written as long vowels. Thus /ayt-a-aʔ/ is written <b>aitäʔ</b>.
</ul>
Also note some phonetic changes that aren’t marked in the spelling:
<ul>
<li> <b>i > y</b> before a vowel: <b>siniaɫ</b> is pronounced [si-nyal]
<li> <b>u > w</b> before or after a vowel: <b>manuiga</b> is [ma-nwi-ga]
<li> Also between vowels: <b>zintakaui</b> is [zin-ta-ka-wi]
</ul>
In the following tables, irregularities are highlighted in blue.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td colspan="7"> <b>Masculine</b></td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> SV →</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> <td> <b> -</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> <td> <b> i</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. nom</td> <td> <b> -z, s</b> </td> <td> <b> sin-<blu>ä</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-z</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-az</b> </td> <td> <b> man-uz</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-iz</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. gen</td> <td> <b> -aʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> sin-äʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-aʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-äʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> man-uaʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-iaʔ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. acc</td> <td> <b> -</b> </td> <td> <b> sin-a</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-a</b> </td> <td> <b> man-u</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-i</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. ins</td> <td> <b> -ga</b> </td> <td> <b> sin-a<blu>k</blu>a</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵüŋ-<blu>k</blu>a</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-aga</b> </td> <td> <b> man-uga</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-iga</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. loc</td> <td> <b> -aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> sin-<blu>r</blu>aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-äɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> man-uaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-iaɫ </b> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> SV →</b> </td> <td> <b> i</b> </td> <td> <b> i</b> </td> <td> <b> ai</b> </td> <td> <b> ui</b> </td> <td> <b> ui</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. nom</td> <td> <b> -<blu>ʔ</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> sin-iʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-iʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-aiʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> man-uiʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-uiʔ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. gen</td> <td> <b> -<blu>ä</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> sin-iä</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-iä</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-ayä</b> </td> <td> <b> man-uyä</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-uyä</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. acc</td> <td> <b> -</b> </td> <td> <b> sin-i</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-i</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-ai-</b> </td> <td> <b> man-ui</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-ui</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. ins</td> <td> <b> -ga</b> </td> <td> <b> sin-iga</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-iga</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-aiga</b> </td> <td> <b> man-uiga</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-uiga</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. loc</td> <td> <b> -aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> sin-iaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ḵün-iaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ait-ayaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> man-uyaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> buḡ-yaɫ </b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<ul>
<li> If the citation form ends in a consonant (e.g. <b>kiɫal</b> ‘sky’), follow the künz declension, with the citation form as s.nom.
<li> The s.nom may also end in -<b>s</b>, e.g. <b>alas</b> ‘nose’. The other forms are regular.
<li> The nom. and gen. endings differ in the singular and plural.
<li> Instrumental <b>ga</b> is due to voicing of <b>k</b> between vowels.
<li> The <b>sinä</b> class derives from proto-Eastern forms ending in *r, still seen in the s.loc. It protected the -<b>k</b>- in the s.ins from voicing before being lost.
</ul>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td colspan="5"> <b>Neuter</b></td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> SV → </b> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> <td> <b> i</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. nom</td> <td> <b> -ɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-iɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. gen</td> <td> <b> -aʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uaʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-yaʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-äʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. acc</td> <td> <b> -ŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-iŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-aŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. ins</td> <td> <b> -ga</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uga</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-iga</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-aga</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. loc</td> <td> <b> -aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-yaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-äɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> SV →</b> </td> <td> <b> ui</b> </td> <td> <b> ui</b> </td> <td> <b> ai</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. nom</td> <td> <b> -ɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uiɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-uiɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-aiɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. gen</td> <td> <b> -<blu>ä</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uyä</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-uyä</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-ayä</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. acc</td> <td> <b> -ŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-uiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-aiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. ins</td> <td> <b> -ga</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uiga</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-uiga</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-aiga</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. loc</td> <td> <b> -aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> kšar-uyaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ma-uyaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> yäl-ayaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<ul>
<li> The nom. and acc. endings differ from the masculine.
<li> The genitive ending varies in the plural.
</ul>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td colspan="4"> <b>Feminine</b></td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> SV →</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> <td> <b> i</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. nom</td> <td> <b> -</b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-a</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-i</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. gen</td> <td> <b> -aʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-äʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-yaʔ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. acc</td> <td> <b> -a</b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-ä</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-ya</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. ins</td> <td> <b> -ru</b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-aru</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-iru</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> s. loc</td> <td> <b> -ɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-iɫ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> SV →</b> </td> <td> <b> ai</b> </td> <td> <b> ya</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. nom</td> <td> <b> -<blu>ʔ</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-aiʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-yaʔ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. gen</td> <td> <b> -<blu>ä</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-ayä</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-yä</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. acc</td> <td> <b> -<blu>ŋ</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-aiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-yaŋ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. ins</td> <td> <b> -ru</b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-airu</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-yaru</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> pl. loc</td> <td> <b> -ɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> gälar-aiɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> makša-yaɫ</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<ul>
<li> The ins. ending <b>ru</b> differs from the masculine and neuter, and the locative has simplified to <b>ɫ</b>.
<li> The nom. ending changes to -<b>ʔ</b> in the plural; this is shared with the masculine.
<li> The gen. and acc. endings change in the plural and are shared with the neuters.
<li> The proto-Eastern *e and *a classes merged to -<b>a</b>.
</ul>
<h3><a name="Adjectives">Adjectives</a></h3>
Adjectives come in three declensions, whose citation forms (m.s.nom) end in a consonant, <b>a</b>, or <b>iz</b>.
<p>They all follow nominal declensions. The table below gives the SV and the sample noun above to consult.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> singular</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> plural</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> m</b> </td> <td> <b> n</b> </td> <td> <b> f</b> </td> <td> <b> m</b> </td> <td> <b> n</b> </td> <td> <b> f</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> I</td> <td> <b> - kün-z</b> </td> <td> <b> u kšar-uɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> a gälar-a</b> </td> <td> <b> i ḵün-iʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> u kšar-uɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ai gälar-aiʔ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> II</td> <td> <b> a ait-az</b> </td> <td> <b> a yäl-aɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> a gälar-a</b> </td> <td> <b> ai ait-aiʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> ai yäl-aiɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ai gälar-aiʔ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> III</td> <td> <b> i buḡ-iz</b> </td> <td> <b> i ma-iɫ </b> </td> <td> <b> i makša-i</b> </td> <td> <b> ui buḡ-uiʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> ui ma-uiɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ya makša-yaʔ</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The II declension is found only in derived forms: participles (<b>lüvta</b> ‘loved’, <b>lüvka</b> ‘loving’) and comparatives (<b>däna</b> ‘flatter’, <b>huda</b> ‘fuller’). The expected masculine s.nom -<b>az</b> appears as -<b>a</b> instead.
<p>Note suppletive <b>mälatiz</b> ‘better’, which is declension III; ‘best’ is <b>mälata</b>.
<p>The superlative is formed with the suffix -<b>ata</b>; thus <b>dänata</b> ‘flattest’, <b>hudata</b> ‘fullest’.
<p>The comparative -<b>a</b> derives from earlier *ä < *ar < *or. The superlative likely comes from *atsaz or *atsiz— cf. Caďinor -<i>astes</i>; the declension changed to match the comparatives.
<h3><a name="Pronouns">Pronouns</a></h3>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> 1s</td> <td> 2s</td> <td> 3s</td> <td> 1p</td> <td> 2p</td> <td> 3p</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> nom</td> <td> <b> saɫa</b> </td> <td> <b> laʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> taɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> tähu</b> </td> <td> <b> mauʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> kaiɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> gen</td> <td> <b> saɫai</b> </td> <td> <b> laɫai</b> </td> <td> <b> taɫai</b> </td> <td> <b> tahä</b> </td> <td> <b> muyä</b> </td> <td> <b> kayä</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> acc</td> <td> <b> aḏu</b> </td> <td> <b> laɫa</b> </td> <td> <b> taɫa</b> </td> <td> <b> taiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> muiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> kaiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> ins</td> <td> <b> saɫḵu</b> </td> <td> <b> laga</b> </td> <td> <b> taɫḵa</b> </td> <td> <b> taika</b> </td> <td> <b> muika</b> </td> <td> <b> kaika</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> clitic</td> <td> <b> ḏu-</b> </td> <td> <b> la-</b> </td> <td> <b> ta-</b> </td> <td> <b> tai-</b> </td> <td> <b> mui-</b> </td> <td> <b> kai-</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> adj</td> <td> <b> ariz</b> </td> <td> <b> lariz</b> </td> <td> <b> tariz</b> </td> <td> <b> tähiz</b> </td> <td> <b> muriz</b> </td> <td> <b> kariz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> who s</b> </td> <td> <b> pl</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> nom</td> <td> <b> ʔaiɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ʔuyu</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> gen</td> <td> <b> ʔayä</b> </td> <td> <b> ʔuyä</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> acc</td> <td> <b> ʔaiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> ʔuiŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> ins</td> <td> <b> ʔaika</b> </td> <td> <b> ʔuika</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> loc</td> <td> <b> ʔayaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> ʔuyaɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Subject pronouns, being redundant with the verbal endings, can be omitted except for emphasis.
All these pronouns are stressed on the first vowel.
<p>Clitics can be used to mark the object of a verb or preposition, or for possession on a noun. I set them off with a hyphen in transliteration (<b>ḏu-tibaɫ</b> ‘my horse’), but in the Obenzayet alphabet there is no separation (<tt>dutiba¬</tt>).
<p>The genitive is rarely used (but see “Possession”). It’s preferred to use either the clitics or the possessive adjectives.
<h4>Other pronouns</h4>
The demonstratives are <b>ats</b> ‘this’ and <b>tats</b> ‘this’. They are regular Declension I adjectives, but can be used as substantives.
<p><b>Rïs</b> ‘here’, <b>tadz</b> ‘there’, <b>ʔaidiɫa</b> ‘where’, <b>ridz</b> ‘now’, <b>tidz</b> ‘then’, <b>ʔaidz</b> ‘when’ are invariable. <b>ʔaiz</b> ‘which (one)’ and <b>ʔaimukšiz</b> ‘how many’ are regular adjectives.
<p>The quantifiers are <b>hiz</b> ‘none’, <b>anṯiz</b> ‘some’, <b>mukšiz</b> ‘many’, <b>kšaʔiz</b> ‘every’, all regular adjectives. Combined forms can be made with <b>uŋka</b> ‘person’, <b>diɫa</b> ‘place’, <b>dänz</b> ‘day’, or a more specific word. But there are words <b>hüdz</b> ‘never’, <b>kšadz</b> ‘always’.
<h3><a name="Verbs">Verbs</a></h3>
The definite paradigm uses the same root + SV + ending formula as nouns, but here the SV varies by tense (present/future vs past) rather than number. The prototypical endings are these, with <b><blu>A</blu></b> standing for the stem vowel:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> Pres</td> <td> </td> <td> Past</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> s</b> </td> <td> <b> pl</b> </td> <td> <b> s</b> </td> <td> <b> pl</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1</td> <td> <b> aɫ<blu>A</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> <blu>A</blu>mu</b> </td> <td> <b> iɫ<blu>A</blu></b> </td> <td> <b> <blu>Ä</blu>mu</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2</td> <td> <b> aɫ<blu>A</blu>z</b> </td> <td> <b> <blu>A</blu>hi</b> </td> <td> <b> iɫ<blu><blu>A</blu>z</b> </td> <td> <b> <blu>Ä</blu>hi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3</td> <td> <b> <blu>A</blu>ʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> <blu>Ä</blu>ṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> <blu>A</blu>i</b> </td> <td> <b> <blu>Ä</blu>ṯu</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
There are two possible SVs, <b>a</b> and <b>u</b>, which reverse in the past tense. In addition, the past endings have these differences:
<ul>
<li> The 1s and 2s initial vowel changes to <b>i</b>
<li> The 3s final consonant changes to <b>i</b>
<li> The 1p and 2p vowels are lengthened (not just the 3p)
</ul>
Here are the definite paradigms:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td width="50"></td> <td> arilag</td> <td> lälaŋ</td> <td> bakšia</td> <td> ɣɫäɣä</td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td colspan="5"> <b>Present</b> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1s</td> <td> <b> aril-aɫa</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-aɫi</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-aɫu</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-aɫu</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2s</td> <td> <b> aril-aɫaz</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-aɫiz</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-aɫuz</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-aɫuz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3s</td> <td> <b> aril-iʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-aʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-iʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-aʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1p</td> <td> <b> aril-amu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-amu</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-umu</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-umu</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2p</td> <td> <b> aril-ahi</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ahi</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-uhi</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-uhi</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3p</td> <td> <b> aril-äṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-äṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-ïṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-üṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td colspan="5"> <b>Past</b> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1s</td> <td> <b> aril-iɫu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iɫu</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-iɫa</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-iɫa</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2s</td> <td> <b> aril-iɫuz</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iɫuz</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-iɫaz</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-iɫaz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3s</td> <td> <b> aril-ui</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ai</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-ai</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-ai</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1p</td> <td> <b> aril-ümu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ümu</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-ämu</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-ämu</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2p</td> <td> <b> aril-ühi</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ühi</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-ähi</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-ähi</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3p</td> <td> <b> aril-üṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-üṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-äṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-äṯu</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<ul>
<li> <b>Lälaŋ</b> verbs change the SV to <b>i</b> in the 1s/2s present
<li> The SV in the 3s present is ‘wrong’ except for <b>lälaŋ</b> verbs
<li> But in the past, the 3s SV is ‘wrong’ only in <b>lälaŋ</b> verbs
</ul>
The definite past is perfective and realis, contrasting with the imperfective and the past conditional.
<p>The definite present is used for present ongoing states and actions, without aspect distinctions. There are no present imperfective or conditional forms.
<p>When innovating or borrowing verbs, Obenzayet tends to use the -<b>ag</b> conjugation (cf. Verdurian which prefers <i>-an</i> or <i>-en</i>). Thus <b>kšuṯ</b> ‘lying’ > <b>kšuṯag</b> ‘lie’, V. <i>crivan</i> ‘write’ > <b>krivag</b>.
<h4>More past tenses</h4>
The past conditional (used in if statements and several other irrealis constructions) adds the suffix -<b>ar</b> after the verb root, followed by the ordinary past tense endings. It derives from the proto-Eastern past anterior.
<p>I will show just two verbs to show the pattern.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1s</td> <td> <b> aril-ar-iɫu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ar-iɫu</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2s</td> <td> <b> aril-ar-iɫuz</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ar-iɫuz</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3s</td> <td> <b> aril-ar-ui</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ar-ai</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1p</td> <td> <b> aril-ar-ümu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ar-ümu</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2p</td> <td> <b> aril-ar-ühi</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ar-ühi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3p</td> <td> <b> aril-ar-üṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ar-üṯu</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The past imperfect goes back to proto-Eastern, and has distinct endings, the same for all verbs. It’s used for ongoing, habitual, or uncompleted events.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1s</td> <td> <b> aril-iä</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iä</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2s</td> <td> <b> aril-araz</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-araz</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3s</td> <td> <b> aril-aya</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-aya</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1p</td> <td> <b> aril-ama</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ama</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2p</td> <td> <b> aril-ahia</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ahia</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3p</td> <td> <b> aril-ïṯa</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-ïṯa</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<h4>Non-past irrealis</h4>
The subjunctive is formed with the suffix -<b>iz</b> plus the regular present endings:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1s</td> <td> <b> aril-iz-aɫa</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iz-aɫi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2s</td> <td> <b> aril-iz-aɫaz</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iz-aɫiz</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3s</td> <td> <b> aril-iz-iʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iz-aʔ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1p</td> <td> <b> aril-iz-amu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iz-amu</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2p</td> <td> <b> aril-iz-ahi</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iz-ahi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3p</td> <td> <b> aril-iz-äṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-iz-äṯu</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The potential is formed with the suffix -<b>and</b> plus the regular present endings:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1s</td> <td> <b> aril-and-aɫa</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-and-aɫi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2s</td> <td> <b> aril-and-aɫaz</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-and-aɫiz</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3s</td> <td> <b> aril-and-iʔ</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-and-aʔ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1p</td> <td> <b> aril-and-amu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-and-amu</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2p</td> <td> <b> aril-and-ahi</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-and-ahi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3p</td> <td> <b> aril-and-äṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-and-äṯu</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Usage will be discussed below, but in general the subjunctive is used for possible states, the potential for ability and intention.
<h4>Imperative</h4>
The imperative is formed from the verb root + the stem vowel. The plural form uses <b>i</b> instead.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> Present</td> <td> arilag</td> <td> lälaŋ</td> <td> bakšia</td> <td> ɣɫäɣä</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> <td> <b> u</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2s</td> <td> <b> aril-a</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-a</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-u</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-u</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2p </td> <td> <b> aril-i</b> </td> <td> <b> läl-i</b> </td> <td> <b> bakš-i</b> </td> <td> <b> ɣläɣ-i</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
There are no 1st or 3rd person forms.
<h4>sahä ‘to be’</h4>
The verb <b>sahä</b> ‘be’ is irregular in the present definite:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1s</td> <td> <b> saɫi</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2s</td> <td> <b> saɫiz</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3s</td> <td> <b> sahiz</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1p</td> <td> <b> sämu</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2p</td> <td> <b> sahai</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3p</td> <td> <b> säṯu</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
All other forms are regular, following the -<b>ä</b> conjugation, like <b>ɣɫäɣä</b>.
<h3><a name="Numbers">Numbers</a></h3>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> </td> <td> x</td> <td> 10x</td> <td> xth</td> <td> 1/x</td> <td> x-fold unit</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1</td> <td> <b> änu</b> </td> <td> <b> dakš </b> </td> <td> <b> bäɫiz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 2</td> <td> <b> ṯuna</b> </td> <td> <b> ṯundakš </b> </td> <td> <b> vradiz</b> </td> <td> <b> laŋ </b> </td> <td> <b> ṯunḏuɫ </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 3</td> <td> <b> dïŋ</b> </td> <td> <b> dindakš </b> </td> <td> <b> dïmä</b> </td> <td> <b> tiḡ </b> </td> <td> <b> dinduɫ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 4</td> <td> <b> bäʔua</b> </td> <td> <b> bätakš </b> </td> <td> <b> tadiniz</b> </td> <td> <b> baḡuɫ</b> </td> <td> <b> bäʔtuɫ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 5</td> <td> <b> päṯu</b> </td> <td> <b> pätakš</b> </td> <td> <b> päṯiz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> päṯuɫ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 6</td> <td> <b> sata</b> </td> <td> <b> satakš</b> </td> <td> <b> satiz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> satuɫ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 7</td> <td> <b> kaipas</b> </td> <td> <b> kaipakš</b> </td> <td> <b> kaipiz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 8</td> <td> <b> yagi</b> </td> <td> <b> yagakš</b> </td> <td> <b> yagiz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> yagduɫ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 9</td> <td> <b> navri</b> </td> <td> <b> nädakš</b> </td> <td> <b> navriz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 10</td> <td> <b> dakš</b> </td> <td> <b> sigäḏu</b> </td> <td> <b> dakšiz</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> dakštuɫ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 100</td> <td> <b> sigäḏu</b> </td> <td><b>miɫ</b></td> <td> <b> sigäḏiz</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> 1000</td> <td> <b> miɫ </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Numbers are concatenated with <b>ŋa</b>, largest numbers first:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr><td><b>dakš ŋa ṯuna</b> </td><td>20 + 2 22</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>yagakš ŋa päṯu</b> </td><td>80 + 5 85</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>sigäḏu ŋa kaipakš ŋa bäʔua</b> </td><td>100 + 70 + 4 174</td></tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
However, the number of hundreds or thousands is given after the word sigäḏu or miɫ:
<blockquote>
<b>miɫ dïŋ ŋa sigäḏu kaipas ŋa yagakš ŋa navri</b>
<br/>1000 3 and 100 7 and 80 and 9
<br/><i>3789</i>
</blockquote>
Numbers are invariable, and follow the noun: <b>manuiʔ ṯuna</b> ‘two hands’. However, there is an alternative construction <i>number <genitive></i>, which places emphasis on the number: <b>ṯuna zintayä</b> ‘two of the cities’.
<p>There are names only for fractions of 2/3/4. Beyond this you’d say e.g. <b>kïrka päṯi</b> ‘the fifth part’.
<p>A group of x people, or something made of x parts, is named with -<b>duɫ</b>, which assimilates in voicing and velarization to the preceding consonant. These words can also be used as adjectives meaning x-fold.
<h3><a name="Derivational">Derivational Morphology</a></h3>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td colspan="3"> <b>Nominalizers</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> person, doer</td> <td> <b> -kaiz</b> </td> <td> <b> Ubiŋkaiz</b> Obenzayan </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"></td> <td> </td> <td><b>vrazi</b> before > <b>vraskaiz</b> ancestor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> abstract state</td> <td> <b> -adz</b> </td> <td> <b> ʔiliz</b> brave > <b>ʔiladz</b> bravery</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> instance of action</td> <td> <b> -z</b> </td> <td> <b> bukaŋ</b> hit > <b>bukz</b> a blow, a hit</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> feminine</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> giɫaz</b> boy > <b>giɫa</b> girl</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"></td> <td> </td> <td><b>sularuɫ</b> monk > <b>sulara</b> nun</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> diminutive</td> <td> <b> -k-</b> </td> <td> <b> mayala<b> woman > <b>mayalka</b> maiden</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"></td> <td> </td> <td><b>ninz</b> nut > <b>ninkaz</b> testicle</td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td colspan="3"> <b>Adjectivizers</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> N > A</td> <td> <b> -tiz</b> </td> <td> <b> räs</b> righteousness > <b>rästiz</b> righteous</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> material</td> <td> <b> -riz</b> </td> <td> <b> ädi</b> wood > <b>ädriz</b> wooden</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> passive participle</td> <td> <b> -ta</b> </td> <td> <b> nuarag</b> curl up > <b>nuarta</b> curled up</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> active participle</td> <td> <b> -ka</b> </td> <td> <b> lüvag<b> love > <b>lüvka</b> loving</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> negative</td> <td> <b> hu-</b> </td> <td> <b> dafta</b> clothed > <b>hudafta</b> naked</b> </td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td colspan="3"> <b>Verbalizers</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> Verbalizer</td> <td> <b> -tag</b> </td> <td> <b> liɣiz</b> tall > <b>liktag</b> stand</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> Causative</td> <td> <b> -m(a)</b> </td> <td> <b> näŋ</b> be born > <b>namaŋ</b> give birth</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#E0B000"> </td> <td> </td> <td><b> läzaŋ</b> go > <b>läzmaŋ</b> lead</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<h2><a name="Syntax">Syntax</a></h2>
<h3><a name="VSO">Sentence order</a></h3>
The unmarked sentence order is <blu>V</blu>S<ora>O</ora>:
<blockquote> <tt> ≈¬a≈ai hirak <u>d</u>uvu<u>c</u>.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Ɣɫaɣai</blu> hiraʔ <ora>ḏu-vuḵ</ora>.</b> <br/>
kill-past.3s enemy-nom 1s-primary.horse-acc<br/>
<i> The enemy <blu>killed <ora>my primary horse</ora>.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<blockquote> <tt> tailäzak va<u>d</u>ircai aluta Ubi%cai.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Tailäzaʔ</blu> Vaḏirkai <ora>aluta Ubiŋkai</ora>.</b> <br/>
seek-3s Verdurian-f.s.nom grammar-s.acc Obenzayan-m.s.acc<br/>
<i> The Verdurian woman <blu>is asking for</blu> <ora>a grammar of Obenzayet</ora>.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Any argument can be fronted, which indicates topicalization or emphasis. Optionally, its original location may be marked with a pronoun.
<blockquote> <tt> Hirak, ≈¬a≈ai ta¬ <u>d</u>uvu<u>c</u>.</tt> <br/>
<b> Hiraʔ,<blu> ɣɫaɣai</blu> (taɫ) <ora>ḏu-vuḵ</ora>.</b> <br/>
enemy-nom kill-past.3s (he/she) 1s-primary.horse-acc<br/>
<i> The enemy, he <blu>killed</blu> <ora>my primary horse</ora>.</i> <br/>
Or: it was the enemy who killed my primary horse.
</blockquote>
<blockquote> <tt> <u>D</u>uvu<u>c</u>, ≈¬a≈ai hirak tai%.</tt> <br/>
<b> <ora>Ḏu-vuḵ</ora>, <blu>ɣɫaɣai</blu> hiraʔ (taiŋ).</b> <br/>
1s-primary.horse-acc / kill-past.3s enemy-nom <br/>
<i> <ora>My primary horse</ora>, the enemy <blu>killed</blu> it.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
A fronted argument should be one already present in the context, not something new.
<p>An adjective modifying the verb may precede it (probably so that it is not taken as an argument).
<h3><a name="PronounArg">Pronominal arguments</a></h3>
The 1st and 2nd person pronouns should be used only for emphasis: to say “I love you”, <b>la-lüvaɫa</b> suffices. <b>La-lüvaɫa <blu>saɫa</blu></b> would be “I love you” or “It’s I who love you”.
<p>The clitic forms of the pronouns are preferred to the accusative, and are also used for datives when an accusative argument is explicitly given. You can say <b>lüvaɫa <blu>laɫa</blu></b> for emphasis (“I love you”, “It’s you I love”).
<p>The clitic precedes any verbal modifiers, such as adverbs:
<blockquote> <tt> <u>D</u>u<u>t</u>i≈iz <u>c</u>urnui.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Ḏu</blu>-ṯiɣiz ḵurnui.</b> <br/>
me-quiet speak-3s.past<br/>
<i> He spoke to me softly.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
There is no reflexive pronoun, but if you want to emphasize that a third person object is not reflexive, you can use <b>tats</b> ‘that’ instead of a pronoun:
<blockquote> <tt> Diyaya tïba¬ tatak.</tt> <br/>
<b> Diyaya tïbaɫ <blu>tataʔ</blu>.</b> <br/>
ride-impf.3s horse-acc that-m.s.gen<br/>
<i> He rode his (someone else’s) horse.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
To mark an action that is surprisingly directed against oneself, the object can be changed to <b>huvradiz</b> ‘same’. (That is, you shouldn’t use this construction for completely unsurprising actions, like washing oneself.)
<blockquote> <tt> Cßu<u>t</u>i mä≈c huvradya.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kšuṯiʔ mäɣi <blu>huvradya</blu>.</b> <br/>
lie-3s witch same-f.s.acc<br/>
<i> The witch is deceiving herself.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="NP">NP order</a></h3>
Nouns precede adjectives, genitives, numbers, demonstratives, and relative clauses (in that order):
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>mayalka laɫi </b></td><td>a beautiful girl</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>mayalka ganaʔ</b> </td><td>a girl of the tribe</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>mayalka ata </b></td><td>this girl</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>mayalkaiʔ dïŋ</b> </td><td>three girls</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>mayalkaiʔ dïŋ ata</b> </td><td>these three girls</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>mayalka namka giɫa </b></td><td>a girl who gives birth to a boy</td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
Adjectives can be used as substantives: <b>liɣiz</b> ‘a tall person’, <b>Ubinkaiz</b> ‘an Obenzayan’.
<p>There are no articles. However, sometimes previous reference is emphasized by fronting, as a form of topicalization.
<h3><a name="Negatives">Negatives</a></h3>
A sentence is negated by inserting the particle <b>hü</b> after the verb.
<blockquote> <tt> Gacßi¬a hü tïba¬ lari.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gakšiɫa <blu>hü</blu> tïbaɫ lari.</b><br/>
<i> steal-1s.past not horse your-s.m.acc</i> <br/>
I didn’t steal your horse.<br/>
</blockquote>
You can negate an argument with <b>hiz</b> ‘none’. You don’t also add <b>hü</b>— except in Nešian.
<blockquote> <tt> Gacßi¬a tïba¬ hi.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gakšiɫa tïbaɫ <blu>hi</blu>. </b><br/>
<i> steal-1s.past horse none- s.m.acc</i> <br/>
I stole no horse.<br/>
</blockquote>
Like any adjective, <b>hiz</b> can be used as a substantive: <b>Gakšiɫa <blu>hi</blu></b> ‘I stole nothing’.
<h3><a name="Questions">Questions</a></h3>
To form a yes-no question, the particle <b>sahü</b> is placed at the end of the sentence.
<blockquote> <tt> Gacßi¬a tïba¬ lari sahü?</tt> <br/>
<b> Gakšiɫa tïbaɫ lari <blu>sahü</blu>?</b> <br/>
steal-1s.past horse-acc your-s.m.acc Q<br/>
<i> Did I steal your horse?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If you agree, you say <b>tats</b> (‘that’); if you disagree, <b>hü</b> (‘no’).
<p>You can’t combine <b>hü</b> and <b>sahü</b>— that is, there are no negative questions. However, you can suggest that the state of affairs didn’t happen by using the conditional (past) or subjunctive (present):
<blockquote> <tt> Gacßarai u%ca latïba¬ sahü?</tt> <br/>
<b> Gakšarai uŋka la-tïbaɫ <blu>sahü</blu>?</b> <br/>
steal-cond-3s person 2s-horse-acc Q<br/>
<i> Did someone steal your horse? (implication: probably not)</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Interrogatives">Interrogatives</a></h3>
Interrogatives are usually fronted.
<blockquote> <tt> Kai¬ tugui aiz tïba¬?</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>ʔaiɫ</blu> tugui aiz tibaɫ?</b> <br/>
who fall-3s.past from horse-s.acc<br/>
<i> Who fell off their horse?</i>
<p><tt> Kaiban ca¬ü<u>t</u>u cßüdaik aryak sahi%?</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>ʔaiban</blu> kaɫüṯu kšüdaiʔ aryaʔ sahiŋ?</b> <br/>
why acquire-3p.past pig-pl my-f.pl mange-acc<br/>
<i> Why do my pigs always get mange?</i>
<p><tt> Läzmak ≈raba gälara¬, ata kaidi¬a ≈raba?</tt> <br/>
<b> Läzmaʔ ɣraba gälaraɫ, ata <blu>ʔaidiɫa</blu> ɣraba?</b> <br/>
lead-3s wadi river-loc / but where wadi<br/>
<i> The wadi leads to the river; but where is the wadi?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
With <b>ʔaiz</b> ‘which’ or <b>ʔaimukšiz</b> ‘how many’, which modify an NP, the NP is fronted with it:
<blockquote> <tt> Kaimucßui buci katanda¬iz käbä¬?</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>ʔaimukšui buki</blu> ʔaṯandaɫiz ʔäḇäɫ?</b> <br/>
how.many blow-pl.acc bear-potent-2s head-loc<br/>
<i> How many punches to the head can you endure?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Copula">Copular constructions</a></h3>
<b>Sahä</b> ‘be’ acts like any other verb, except that both its arguments are nominative.
<blockquote> <tt> Sä<u>t</u>u mayalcaik <u>C</u>u¬zäk zra<u>t</u>yak.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Säṯu</blu> mayalkaiʔ Ḵuɫzäʔ zraṯyaʔ.</b> <br/>
be-3p girl-pl Kulža-gen ugly-f.pl.nom<br/>
<i> The girls in Kulža are ugly.</i>
<p><tt> Sahiz cßüda cßälca.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Sahiz</blu> kšüda kšälka.</b> <br/>
be-3s pig-nom animal-nom<br/>
<i> A pig is an animal.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Existentials, however, use the verb <b>liktag</b> ‘stand’:
<blockquote> <tt> Lictik piccaiz lamicßumüla¬.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Liktiʔ</blu> pikkaiz la-mikšumüɫaɫ.</b> <br/>
stand-3s scorpion you.s-saddlebag-loc<br/>
<i> There is a scorpion in your saddlebag.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Possession">Possession</a></h3>
There is no verb ‘have’. Rather, possession is indicated using the locative and the copula.
<blockquote> <tt> Sä<u>t</u>u pa¬saik ta%a dalua¬.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Säṯu</blu> paɫsaiʔ taŋa <blu>daluaɫ</blu>.</b> <br/>
be-3p flea-pl and king-loc<br/>
<i> The king too has fleas. (proverb)
<br/>Lit., the fleas are also at the king.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Pronouns do not have a locative form, so the genitive is used. However, it must directly follow the verb.
<blockquote> <tt> Sahiz la¬ai u%ga im vikßi¬ panak?</tt> <br/>
<b> Sahiz <grn>laɫai</grn> uŋga im vikšiɫ panaʔ</b> <br/>
be-3s you.s-gen nail or hair man-gen<br/>
<i> Do you have a toenail or hair from the man?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Within an NP, the genitive is used for possession: <b>vuḵ <grn>säzäʔ</grn></b> ‘my sister’s primary horse’. With pronouns, it’s preferred to use either the possessive adjectives (<b>vuḵ ariz</b> ‘my primary horse’) or the clitics (<b>ḏu-vuḵ</b>).
<h3><a name="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a></h3>
The conjunctions used for non-sentence constituents are <b>ŋa</b> ‘and’ and <b>im</b> ‘or’: <b>saḏa <blu>ŋa</blu> daluz</b> ‘queen and king’; <b>kupriz <blu>ŋa</blu> rästiz</b> ‘wise and righteous’, <b>saɫa <blu>im</blu> laʔ</b> ‘you or I’.
<p>Conjoining sentences, you can use <b>taŋa</b> ‘and’ (not <b>ŋa</b>), <b>im</b> ‘or’, <b>ata</b> ‘but’, <b>banats</b> ‘because’, <b>ḵurnka</b> ‘therefore’, <b>aʔban</b> ‘despite’:
<blockquote> <tt> Rugü<u>t</u>u vrascauik tähuik zintacaui, ata rugü<u>t</u>u tai% ridz.</tt> <br/>
<b> Rugüṯu vraskauiʔ tähuiʔ zintakaui, <blu>ata</blu> rugüṯu taiŋ ridz.</b> <br/>
rule-past.3p ancestor-pl our-m.p.nom townsman-pl.acc / but rule-3p we-acc now<br/>
<i> Our ancestors ruled the city dwellers, but now they rule us.</i>
<p>
<tt> <u>D</u>ukaranma¬az, banats nuyari¬uz lävraha%ca <u>d</u>umayalä.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ḏu-karanmaɫaz, <blu>banats</blu> nuyariɫuz la-avrahaŋka ḏu-mayalä.</b> <br/>
1s-shame-2s / because sleep-cond-2s not 2s-refuse-inf-ins 1s-wife-acc<br/>
<i> You shame me, for you refused to sleep with my wife.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Dative">Dative constructions</a></h3>
Obenzayet has lost the proto-Eastern dative. It therefore simply uses the <blu>accusative</blu> for both direct and indirect object:
<blockquote> <tt> Dai mä≈i mayalcä li%<u>c</u>ä lüväk.</tt> <br/>
<b> Dai mäɣi <blu>mayalkä liŋḵä</blu> lüväʔ.</b> <br/>
give-past.3s witch girl-acc remedy-acc love-gen<br/>
<i> The witch gave the girl a love charm.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If a clitic appears on the verb, it should be the indirect object:
<blockquote> <tt> <u>D</u>udai mä≈i li%<u>c</u>ä lüväk.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Ḏu</blu>-dai mäɣi liŋḵä lüväʔ.</b> <br/>
1s-give-past.3s witch remedy-acc love-gen<br/>
<i> The witch gave me a love charm.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
For verbs of speaking, the person addressed is in the <blu>accusative</blu>, but the thing said is in the <ora>instrumental</ora>.
<blockquote> <tt> Päta¬i cai¬iraga mayalcä, ata <u>d</u>ulüvil hü.</tt> <br/>
<b> Pätaɫi <ora>kailiraga</ora> <blu>mayalkä</blu>, ata ḏu-lüviʔ hü.</b> <br/>
sing-past.1s romance-ins girl-acc / but 1s-love-3s not<br/>
<i> I sang a ballad to the girl, but she does not love me.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
As we’ll see, language names are in the instrumental, which means you can have a double instrumental: <b>pätaɫi <ora>kailiraga kazinaka</ora></b> ‘I sang a ballad in Caďinor’.
<p>For verbs of naming, the namee is in the <blu>accusative</blu>, the name is <grn>nominative</grn>.
<blockquote> <tt> Nünumu at gru≈a, ≈ra≈ä<u>t</u>u änu kaibanaga Va<u>d</u>ira¬.</tt> <br/>
<b> Nünumu <blu>at</blu> <grn>gruɣa</grn>; ɣraɣäṯu änu ʔaibanaga Vaḏiraɫ.</b> <br/>
name-1p this-acc turnip / eat-3p one reason-ins Verduria-loc<br/>
<i> This thing is called a “turnip”; for some reason they eat it in Verduria.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Prepositions">Prepositions</a></h3>
Obenzayet does not have a rich store of prepositions:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>aiz </b></td><td>from, out of </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>aʔ </b></td><td>against </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>aɫadz </b></td><td>among </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>daräɫ </b></td><td>behind, in back of </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>haʔ </b></td><td>in, inside </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>ḵuba </b></td><td>under </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>naba </b></td><td>over, above, on </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>vrazi </b></td><td>before, in front of </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>karaɫ </b></td><td>beside, next to </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>sadz </b></td><td>away from; without </td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
Prepositions take the accusative. Thus <b>aiz zinta</b> ‘from the city’, <b>aʔ dalu</b> ‘against the king’, <b>ḵuba madä</b> ‘under the table’, <b>karaɫ ḏu-makš</b> ‘beside my master’, <b>sadz yäkšuiŋ</b> ‘without feathers’.
<p>It’s possible to use pronouns as the object— aʔ aḏu ‘against me’, vrazi taiŋ ‘before us’— but more common to use the clitics: <b>ḏu-aʔ, tai-vrazi</b>.
<p>Don’t use a prepositional phrase when the locative will do: <b>zintäɫ</b> ‘in the city’, <b>bärumaiɫ</b> ‘in the mountains’, <b>gälaraɫ</b> ‘by/in the river’, <b>ḏu-dadiɫ</b> ‘on my finger’, <b>kamaɫ</b> ‘at home’. The locative can be thought of as “the type of location obviously appropriate in this context.” Thus a fish swims <b>gälaraɫ</b> ‘in the river’, but a city stands <b>gälaraɫ</b> ‘by the river’.
<p>Also recall that the instrumental takes the place of ‘with’: <b>saraga</b> ‘with a sword’.
<p>There’s no way to indicate that a prepositional phrase indicates movement, except by the choice of verb. Compare <b>läzaŋ haʔ zinta</b> ‘go into the city’, <b>nütavag haʔ zinta</b> ‘stay in the city’. But e.g. <b>zladä naba madä</b> is ambiguous between ‘jump onto the table’ and ‘jump (up and down) on the table’. For that matter, Obenzayet does not distinguish between ‘above (not touching)’ and ‘on’.
<p>Location in time is marked with the locative: <b>aitäɫ</b> ‘during the summer’, <b>näkšuaɫ</b> ‘at night’. Duration is marked with the instrumental: <b>aitaga</b> ‘the summer long’, <b>näkšuga</b> ‘all night’.
<p>The future is ahead of us, so <b>vrazi aita</b> is ‘before/until summer’, <b>daräɫ aita</b> is ‘after/since summer’.
<h3><a name="Tense">Choice of tense</a></h3>
The definite and imperfective tenses all refer to real actions (at least, to the speaker’s knowledge). There is a somewhat bewildering set of options for unreal actions, and these differ in the past and present.
<p>In the past only, the <red>imperfect</red> is used for ongoing actions, especially in contrast with a completed event:
<blockquote> <tt> Pïdiä <u>c</u>uc, kaidz <u>c</u>urnui nümi.</tt> <br/>
<b> <red>Pïdiä</red> ḵuk, ʔaidz ḵurnui nümi.</b> <br/>
drink-imperf.1s ḵukz / when speak-past.3s goddess<br/>
<i> I was drinking ḵukz when the goddess spoke. </i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The imperfect can be used on its own as a frequentative (“I was always drinking”) or simply to indicate an extended process (<b><red>pïdiä</red> näkšuga</b> “I drank all night”).
<p>The <blu>past conditional</blu> is used for non-real actions or states in the past. The prototypical use is in conditional constructions. The if condition is always in the past conditional; so is the consequence if it follows from the condition:
<blockquote> <tt> Zra≈ara¬uz hudaftä, la≈¬a≈arai panz tariz.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Zraɣaraɫuz</blu> hudaftä, la-<blu>ɣɫaɣarai</blu> panz tariz.</b> <br/>
touch-cond-2s nude-s.f.acc / 2s-kill-cond-3s husband 3s-m.s.nom<br/>
<i> If you had touched the naked woman, her husband would have killed you.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If the consequence is in the definite instead— it’s a real action— we could translate “X didn’t happen, and so Y happened”:
<blockquote> <tt> Pïdarik <u>c</u>uc buca%aca, haläzai räcßu%.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Pïdariʔ</blu> ḵuk bukaŋaka, haläzai räkšuŋ.</b> <br/>
drink-cond-3s ḵukz beat.inf-ins / enter-past.3s monster-s.acc<br/>
<i> He drank the ḵukz without striking, so he has become a monster.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
There is no word ‘if’, and this tense is not limited to conditionals. It can be seen as exploring an alternative reality. This is often done out of regret, so these often have the sense “If only X…”
<blockquote> <tt> Akara¬u u¬a<u>c</u>ai!</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Aʔaraɫu</blu> uɫaḵai!</b> <br/>
hear-cond-1s elder-s.acc<br/>
<i> If only I had listened to the elder!</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
There is no present conditional. Instead, a present or future condition is stated using the <grn>subjunctive</grn>:
<blockquote> <tt> Zra≈iza¬iz hudaftä, la≈¬a≈izak panz tariz.</tt> <br/>
<b> <grn>Zraɣizaɫiz</grn> hudaftä, la-<grn>ɣɫaɣizaʔ</grn> panz tariz.</b> <br/>
touch-subj-2s nude-s.f.acc / 2s-kill-subj-3s husband 3s-m.s.nom<br/>
<i> If you touch the naked woman, her husband will kill you.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The subjunctive alone can express a wish (or fear), or act as an exhortation; it’s also used for uncertain future events. <b><grn>Kšutiziʔ</grn></b> ‘die-subj-3s’ could mean, in context, “He’s a dead man”, “He may be dying”, “Let him die,” or “He will die.” Of course these could be clarified by using auxiliaries; see below.
<p>Another use is to make a proposal:
<blockquote> <tt> Ristadizamu pani?</tt> <br/>
<b> <grn>Ristadizamu</grn> pani?</b> <br/>
barter-subj-1p man-pl.acc<br/>
<i> What if we exchanged husbands?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The <ora>potential</ora> is used as a statement of capability or intention. E.g. <b><ora>sumirandaɫu</ora></b> means “I can read” or “I will read (it)”. It’s tenseless, so it could also mean “I could read” or “I intended to read it.”
<p>Note the combination of potential and subjunctive here:
<blockquote> <tt> Cäpanda¬u nümu% lari%, tilu<u>d</u>izik rud ari.</tt> <br/>
<b> <ora>Käpandaɫu</ora> nümuŋ lariŋ, <grn>tiluḏiziʔ</grn> rud ari.</b> <br/>
revere-potential-1s god-s.acc 2s-s.n.acc / heal-subj-3s dog-s.acc 1s-s.m.acc<br/>
<i> I will revere your god if he heals my dog.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
There is no future tense; instead there’s a range of choices, depending on the actor and how certain the event is. Compare:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td>
<b>Sumiraɫu</b>. [definite] </td><td>
I’ll read (with certainty), I’m reading now.</td></tr>
<tr><td>
<b>Sumirizaɫu</b>. [subjunctive]</td><td>
I hope to read, I think I’ll read.</td></tr>
<tr><td>
<b><ora>Sumirandaɫu</ora></b>. [potential] </td><td>
I intend to read, I will make sure to read.</td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
In narratives, it’s common to use the present tense, not the past.
<h3><a name="Infinitives">Infinitives</a></h3>
The first use of an infinitive is as a verbal noun: e.g. <b><blu>nuyag</blu></b> ‘to make love’ is also the word for ‘sex’. As such it is declined as a regular noun: <b>pliruiɫ <blu>nuyagaʔ</blu></b> ‘the pleasures of sex’.
<blockquote> <tt> Cuyilik daluz vri≈a% %a nuyag.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kuyiliʔ daluz <blu>vriɣaŋ</blu> ŋa <blu>nuyag</blu>.</b> <br/>
enjoy-3s king fight-inf-acc and sex-inf-acc<br/>
<i> The king enjoys fighting and screwing.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
It’s used in invariable form as a complement to certain nouns and verbs: e.g. <b>nïradz <blu>nuyag</blu></b> ‘a desire to make love’, <b>banas <blu>yaɣaŋ</blu> gürä</b> ‘the way to hunt a lion’.
<p>In the instrumental, it can be used as an adjective or adverbial:
<blockquote> <tt> Diyï<u>t</u>a ahulagca panik aiz bärumai%.</tt> <br/>
<b> Diyïṯa <blu>ahulagka</blu> paniʔ aiz bärumaiŋ.</b> <br/>
ride-impf.3p scream-inf-ins warrior-pl from mountain-pl.acc<br/>
<i> The warriors rode screaming out of the mountains.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
To express something like “I want X”, Obenzayet throws out all linguistic decency, and makes X the main clause, in the subjunctive, with “I want” expressed using a personal infinitive.
<blockquote> <tt> Lädizik <u>d</u>unïra%ca anäraz <u>d</u>uilad.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lädiziʔ <blu>ḏu-nïraŋka</blu> anäraz ḏu-ilad.</b> <br/>
honor-subj-3s 1s-want-inf-ins headman 1s-bravery-acc<br/>
<i> I want the headman to recognize my bravery.<br/>
Literally, “The headman should recognize my bravery, I-thinkingly.”</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
We can see the same mechanism in a previous example: the highlighted word could be rendered “with your refusal” or “you-refusingly”.
<blockquote> <tt> <u>D</u>ukaranma¬az, banats nuyari¬uz lävraha%ca <u>d</u>umayalä.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ḏu-karanmaɫaz, banats nuyariɫuz <blu>la-avrahaŋka</blu> ḏu-mayalä.</b> <br/>
1s-shame-2s / because sleep-cond-2s not 2s-refuse-inf-ins 1s-wife-acc<br/>
<i> You shame me, for you refused to sleep with my wife.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
You can nest infinitives:
<blockquote> <tt> Sumiranda¬uz <u>d</u>unïra%ca lalana%ca, ata <u>d</u>uzra≈a¬i hü.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sumirandaɫuz <blu>ḏu-nïraŋka la-lanaŋka</blu>, ata ḏu-zraɣaɫi hü. </b> <br/>
study-can-2s 1s-want-inf-ins 2s-think-inf-ins / but 1s-touch-1s not<br/>
<i> You think I don’t want you to study, but I don’t care.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The verb order is the opposite of ours. That is, you decipher these starting at the right: an infinitive applies to the verb to its left.
<h3><a name="Subordination">Subordination</a></h3>
To form a relative clause, you use the participles:
<blockquote> <b> Sumiraʔ panz ivruɫi.</b> <br/>
read-3s man book-pl.acc<br/>
<i> The man reads books.</i> <br/>
<blockquote> <b> → panz sumirka ivruɫi</b> <br/>
man read-act.part-m book-pl.acc<br/>
<i> the man who reads books.</i>
<p>
<b> → ivruɫiʔ sumirtaiɫ panz</b> <br/>
book-pl.nom read-pass.part-n.pl man<br/>
<i> the books that the man read</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
These could also be translated “the man reading books”, “the books read by the man”. The participle of course does not indicate number, tense, or aspect.
<blockquote> <tt> Hud<u>g</u>imik panz sumirca ivru¬c bana diyä tïba¬.</tt> <br/>
<b> Hudḡimiʔ <blu>panz sumirka ivruɫi</blu> bana diyä tïbaɫ.</b> <br/>
forget-3s man read-act.part book-pl.acc way-acc ride-inf horse-acc<br/>
<i> A man who reads books forgets how to ride a horse. </i> <br/>
</blockquote>
You could extend this, but it becomes difficult to parse beyond two participles:
<blockquote> <tt> panz sumirca ivru¬i crivtai% madaluz</tt> <br/>
<b> panz sumirka ivruɫi krivtaiŋ madaluz</b> <br/>
man read-act.part-m book-pl.acc write-pass.part-n.pl.acc prince<br/>
<i> the man who reads books written by the prince</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Note that each participle agrees with the preceding noun (its head): ‘reading’ with ‘man’, ‘written’ with ‘books’.
<h3><a name="Comparatives">Comparatives</a></h3>
Comparatives use the special -<b>a</b> form of an adjective. The comparison class is in the accusative.
<blockquote> <tt> Sahiz sularu¬ zra<u>t</u>a ta¬<u>g</u>ürä.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sahiz sularuɫ <blu>zraṯa taɫḡürä</blu>.</b> <br/>
be-3s monk uglier-m.s.nom dragon-cc<br/>
<i> The monk is uglier than a dragon.</i>
<p> <tt> Luta¬u <u>c</u>uncai cupra.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lutaɫu <blu>ḵunkai</blu> kupra.</b> <br/>
need-1s counselor-acc smarter-m.s.acc<br/>
<i> I need a smarter counselor.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
For pronominal comparisons, you can use the pronouns (<b>zraṯa laɫa</b> ‘uglier than you’) or the clitics (<b>la-zraṯa</b>).
<p>Superlatives have the comparison class in the genitive:
<blockquote> <tt> Sahiz sa<u>d</u>a mutata mayalayä, banats sahiz tamadz cßutiz.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sahiz saḏa <blu>mutata mayalayä</blu>, banats sahiz ta-madz kšutiz.</b> <br/>
be-3s queen saddest-f.s.nom woman-pl.gen / because be-3s 3s-son dead-m.s.nom<br/>
<i> The queen is the saddest of women, for her son is dead.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Causatives">Causatives</a></h3>
Some verbs can be morphologically turned into causatives: <b>näŋ</b> be born > <b>namaŋ</b> give birth. The result is a normal transitive verb.
<p>You can also create a syntactic causative, by demoting the agent to an instrumental. Thus:
<blockquote> <tt> ≈¬a≈ai masticaiz mat.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ɣɫaɣai mastikaiz mat.</b> <br/>
kill-past.3s farmer-nom sheep-acc<br/>
<i> The farmer killed a sheep.</i> <br/>
<blockquote>
<b>→ Ɣɫaɣai diyka <blu>mastikaiga</blu> mat.</b><br/>
kill-past.3s nomad farmer-ins sheep-acc<br/>
<i>The nomad made a farmer kill a sheep.</i>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Passive">Passive construction</a></h3>
There is no morphological passive. You can of course leave out the agent:
<blockquote> <tt> ≈¬a≈ai mat.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ɣɫaɣai mat.</b> <br/>
kill-past.3s sheep-acc<br/>
<i> The sheep was killed.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
To focus on the sheep, making it the subject, you can use the passive participle:
<blockquote> <tt> Sahai mats ≈¬a≈ta.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sahai mats <blu>ɣɫaɣta</blu>.</b> <br/>
be-past.3s sheep-nom kill-past.part-m.s.nom<br/>
<i> The sheep was killed.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
You can even insert the original agent back, using an instrumental:
<blockquote> <tt> Sahai mats ≈¬a≈ta masticaiga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sahai mats ɣɫaɣta <blu>mastikaiga</blu>.</b> <br/>
be-past.3s sheep-nom kill-past.part-m.s.nom farmer-ins<br/>
<i> The sheep was killed by the farmer.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
This construction shouldn’t be over-used; it’s most appropriate when (e.g.) you’ve been talking about the sheep.
<h3><a name="Place">Place clauses</a></h3>
(See “Prepositions” for the basic behavior of locatives and prepositional phrases.)
<p>Indications of place— adverbs, locatives, prepositional phrases, clauses— usually appear at the end of the sentence, but before any time clauses.
<blockquote> <tt> Ca¬anda¬az hya aisä zintä¬.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kaɫandaɫaz hya aisä <blu>zintäɫ</blu>.</b> <br/>
find-potent-2s none-f.s.acc horse.blood-acc city-loc<br/>
<i> You will find no horse’s blood in the big city.</i>
<p>
<tt> Nä¬ü<u>t</u>u nümui¬ naba nacuyag <u>d</u>umadak?</tt> <br/>
<b> Näɫüṯu nümuiɫ <blu>naba nakuyag ḏu-mada</blu>ʔ.</b> <br/>
rain-past.3p god-pl above adulthood.ceremony-acc 1s-son-gen<br/>
<i> The gods rained on my son’s adulthood ceremony. </i> <br/>
</blockquote>
However, the place can be fronted if it’s a topic, setting the scene for what follows.
<blockquote> <tt> Ludya¬, diyandak u%ca cßadz.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Ludyaɫ</blu>, diyandaʔ uŋka kšadz.</b> <br/>
plain-p.loc / ride-potent-3s person forever<br/>
<i> In the Barbarian Plain, a person can ride forever.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
A place clause can be introduced by ʔaidiɫa ‘where’:
<blockquote> <tt> <u>C</u>urnandamu viträ¬ kaidi¬a <u>c</u>urnï<u>t</u>a taipïzik.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ḵurnandamu viträɫ <blu>ʔaidiɫa ḵurnïṯa tai-pïziʔ</blu>.</b> <br/>
speak-potent-1p well-loc where speak-imperf.3p 1p-father-pl<br/>
<i> We will talk at the well where our fathers talked.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Time">Time clauses</a></h3>
(See “Prepositions” for the basic behavior of time locatives, instrumentals, and prepositional phrases.)
<p>Time expressions usually end the sentence.
<blockquote> <tt> Vri≈andamu hü, banats nütavamu ridz.</tt> <br/>
<b> Vriɣandamu hü, banats nütavamu <blu>ridz</blu>.</b> <br/>
fight-potent-1p no / because rest-1p now<br/>
<i> We cannot fight, because we are resting now.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
A time clause is introduced with <b>ʔaidz</b> ‘when’:
<blockquote> <tt> Nä¬a säna¬ kaidz ≈¬a≈ai anäraz tamad.</tt> <br/>
<b> Näɫa sänaɫ <blu>ʔaidz ɣɫaɣai anäraz ta-mad</blu>.</b> <br/>
born-1s year-loc when kill-past.3s headman 3s-son-acc<br/>
<i> I was born in the year when the headman killed his son.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Semantic">Semantic fields</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Topo">Place and language names</a></h3>
Major place names will have an associated adjective. Often this is formed with -<b>kaiz</b>, e.g. <b>Vaḏirkaiz</b> ‘Verdurian’, <b>Ubiŋkaiz</b> ‘Obenzayan’. However, sometimes it has another formation, e.g. <b>Ḵuɫza</b> ‘Kulža’ > <b>Ḵuɫzariz</b>, <b>Bäruḵünz</b> ‘Barakhún’ > <b>Bäruḵs</b>.
<p>This adjective can be used as a substantive for the inhabitants. It should be used in the approprite gender: e.g. <b>Vaḏirkaiz</b> ‘Verdurian man’, <b>Vaḏirkai</b> ‘Verdurian woman’.
<p>Names of nomadic tribes are generally plurals: <b>ʔiluiʔ</b> ‘the brave’ = Eluyet, <b>Gälyaʔ</b> ‘the roots’ = Gelyet, <b>Makšiʔ</b> ‘the masters’ = Makši, <b>Ḡüraiʔ</b> ‘the lions’ = Küret.
<p>In former times the Obenzayans called themselves <b>Ubiŋiʔ</b> ‘the thunders’. But when the kingdom was organized, it was desired to name it in more civilized fashion, thus <b>Ubiŋaz</b>— compare <b>Kazinaz</b> ‘Caďinas’. This in turn produced the adjective <b>Ubiŋkaiz</b>, plural <b>Ubiŋkauiʔ</b>. The Curiyans heard this as <i>Obengyawet</i>— or possibly took this from another Naviu tribe which retained the proto-Eastern plural -et. A couple of Curiyan sound changes produced <i>Obenzayet</i>, which was borrowed into Verdurian.
<p>You speak <b>ḵuranka Ubiŋkaiga</b> ‘using the Obenzayan language’, or like Vaŋkritiz write a grammar <b>ḵuranaʔ Ubiŋkayaʔ</b> ‘of the Obenzayan language’. The word <b>ḵuran</b> ‘language’ can be left out:
<blockquote> <tt> Crivanda¬a Ubi%caiga %a Vadircaiga.</tt> <br/>
<b> Krivandaɫa Ubiŋkaiga ŋa Vaḏirkaiga.</b> <br/>
write-potent-1s Obenzayan-m.s.ins and Verdurian-m.s.ins<br/>
<i> I can write in Obenzayet or Verdurian.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The prominence of <b>Vaḏira</b> is recent; the language was in older times called <b>Kazinä</b> ‘Cadinor’. But that was when it was in everyone’s interest to minimize the difference between classical Caďinor and the vernacular.
<h3><a name="Names">Names</a></h3>
There are several sources of names.
<p>First, ordinary nouns and adjectives. Examples:
<blockquote><table>
<tr>
<td><b>Äḏüa</b> powerful</td>
<td><b>Aɫaz</b> earth </td>
<td><b>Arabaz</b> tree </td>
<td><b>Bäɫiz</b> first </td>
<td><b>Bärta</b> feared
</td></tr><tr>
<td><b>Bäruma</b> mountain </td>
<td><b>Buḡiz </b>big </td>
<td><b>Gäviz</b> pure </td>
<td><b>Ḡüra</b> lion </td>
<td><b>Häɣiz</b> skillful
</td></tr><tr>
<td><b>Itrïn</b> heart </td>
<td><b>Kupriz</b> smart </td>
<td><b>Kumayaz</b> peace </td>
<td><b>Lädz </b>honor </td>
<td><b>Lais </b>wolf
</td></tr><tr>
<td><b>Mälata</b> best </td>
<td><b>Makiḏ </b>diamond </td>
<td><b>Malya </b>bee </td>
<td><b>Mata </b>ewe </td>
<td><b>Mavuḏaz</b> iron
</td></tr><tr>
<td><b>Näɫä </b>rain </td>
<td><b>Näkšuɫ</b> night </td>
<td><b>Naʔi </b>moon </td>
<td><b>Niɫä </b>beauty </td>
<td><b>Nïrta </b>desired
</td></tr><tr>
<td><b>Piṯiz </b>little </td>
<td><b>Rästiz</b> honest </td>
<td><b>Rutiz </b>good </td>
<td><b>Sanadz</b> dream </td>
<td><b>Säran</b> east
</td></tr><tr>
<td><b>Sarz </b>sword </td>
<td><b>Sïɣa </b>berry </td>
<td><b>Taɫa </b>fire </td>
<td><b>Taɫḡüra</b> dragon </td>
<td><b>Ṯuli </b>breeze
</td></tr><tr>
<td><b>Ubiŋ </b>thunder </td>
<td><b>Uraz </b>bear </td>
<td><b>Urduz</b> bird</td>
<td><b>Urunz</b> eagle </td>
<td><b>Vriɣka</b> fighting
</td></tr><tr>
<td><b>Zaka</b> straw </td>
<td><b>Zläda</b> light </td>
<td><b>Yarta</b> flower </td>
<td><b>ʔiliz</b> brave </td>
<td><b>ʔuivuɫ</b> owl
</td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
Most of these could be given to either sex, but the gender (if it’s not neuter) would be adjusted to match the person. You’d naturally keep the stem vowel if possible; thus <b>Arabaz</b> (m) > <b>Araba, ʔiliz</b> (m) > ʔili, <b>Yarta</b> (f) > <b>Yartaz</b>. A masculine noun ending in a consonant went to -<b>i</b>: <b>Sarz > Sari, Ubiŋ > Ubiŋi</b>.
<p>The old Eastern pattern of two-root names is no longer productive in Obenzayet, but many names have been preserved: <b>Barsats‘long</b> arm’, <b>Pansäl</b> ‘strong man’, <b>Niɫanaʔi</b> ‘moon beauty’, <b>Vikšimar</b> ‘black hair’, etc.
<p>Second, names of gods, culture heroes, headmen, and emperors, not necessarily Naviu. Popular names include god names (see below), <b>Ḵidaɫ</b> ‘Kehadau’, <b>Ariviɫa</b> ‘Ervëa’, <b>Ataviz</b> ‘Attafei’, the empress <b>Malya</b>, the Gelyet chiefs <b>ʔuäraz</b> (Hiaraz) and <b>Laŋuraz</b>, and <b>Maḡiz</b> ‘Meugi’ (the Curiyan conqueror of Caďinas).
<p>Finally, names adapted from Cuêzi, Caďinor, and Verdurian, indifferently from Eleďe/Arašei and pagan sources. These often exist in multiple forms, depending on the time borrowed and how well the name-giver knew the languages involved. E.g. Caď. <i>Cuomolondos</i> could be borrowed as <b>Kumulundz, Kumuludz, Kumlun, Kwumiluḏ</b>, etc. The Verdurian form <i>Comblon</i> might be adapted closely as <b>Kumblun</b> or <b>Kublun</b>, but Nešians might show off their Verdurian by using the Verdurian vowels.
<p>The nomads take only one name, supplemented by patronymics: <b>Itrïn Arabäʔ</b>, Itrïn son of Arabäʔ. In the Neši valley people are beginning to use surnames, usually derived from place names or even street names; or they simply continue a patronymic verbatim— e.g. an <b>Arabäʔ</b> need not be the son of an <b>Arabaz</b>, only a descendent.
<p>Matronymics are not unknown, especially for women: <b>Naʔi Yartäʔ</b>, Naʔi daughter of Yarta.
<p>Titles follow the name: <b>Ataviz daluz</b> ‘King Ataviz’.
<h3><a name="Gods">Gods</a></h3>
The major gods of traditional Naviu religion:
<ul>
<li><b>Ädänä</b>— cognate with Enäron; once the creator god, now a benign older god, father of most of the other gods
<li><b>Urunz</b> ‘eagle’, or Nümuz Läviz ‘the new god’, became chief god and creator of the mortal realm when only he could stand up to Uräŋki, the demon of chaos
<li><b>Makšai</b> ‘mistress’, or <b>Gakšika</b>, once ‘the hidden one’ and now ‘thief’; wife and sister of Urunz, who rules for him at night when he sleeps.
<li><b>Arats</b> ‘storm’, responsible for the weather; the national god of Obenzaya, which is named for thunder.
<li><b>Ɣlaika</b> ‘shining’; sister and consort of Arats
<li><b>Kiɫal</b> ‘sky’, considered the wisest of the gods, thus patron of shamans
<li><b>Bünz</b> ‘bull’, who gives or takes away prosperity
<li><b>Raŋtaɫa</b> ‘sacred fire’, goddess of destruction and the afterworld
</ul>
It’s common for these gods to be worshiped in Eretald, especially in the south; their Verdurian names are <i>Adana, Uruns, Makšai, Arata, Hyalag, Ciual, Büns</i>, and <i>Rantaua</i>.
<h2><a name="Sample1">Sample text: The boy and the calf</a></h2>
The text from the Proto-Eastern grammar is actually an Obenzayan story, <b>Giɫaz ŋa zvaiɫ</b>, collected by the Verdurian folklorist Gayo Osörey in the 3450s.
Not all nomads are as severe as this father; many see no contradiction between treating an animal as a pet and as dinner.
<blockquote> <tt> Rï≈ak gi¬az kaidz namak büna pïzäk zvai%.</tt> <br/>
<b> Rïɣaʔ giɫaz ʔaidz namaʔ büna pïzäʔ zvaiŋ.</b> <br/>
watch-3s boy when give.birth-3s cow 3s-father-gen calf-acc<br/>
<i> A boy watches as his father's cow gives birth to a calf.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Näk zvai¬, ta%a nurak mïzä dit lävi.</tt> <br/>
<b> Näʔ zvaiɫ, taŋa nuraʔ mïzä dit lävi.</b> <br/>
born-3s calf / and suckle-impf-3s mother baby-acc new-m.s.acc <br/>
<i> The calf is born, and the mother gives suck to the new baby. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Mistik gi¬az. ≈racßik zvai¬, ta%a ta-huraʔ %a talüvik gi¬az.</tt> <br/>
<b> Mistiʔ giɫaz. Ɣrakšiʔ zvaiɫ, taŋa ta-huraʔ ŋa ta-lüviʔ giɫaz.</b> <br/>
smiles-3s boy / grow-3s calf / and 3s-play-3s and 3s-love-3s boy<br/>
<i> The boy smiles. The calf grows, and the boy plays with it, and loves it.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Tamärik la¬i¬.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ta-märiʔ laɫiɫ.</b> <br/>
be-3s 3s-consider-inf-ins beautiful-n.s.nom<br/>
<i> He considers it beautiful.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ganik ta-pïzä <u>d</u>u%adca. <u>C</u>urnik, <<u>D</u>usa¬iz karanz!</tt><br/>
<b> Ganiʔ ta-pïzä ḏuŋadka. Ḵurniʔ, “Ḏu-saɫiz karanz!</b> <br/>
burn-3s 3s-father anger-ins / say-3s / 1s-be-2s shame<br/>
<i> His father burns in anger. He says, “You are a shame to me!</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Arilandik zvai¬ atu¬ tücca änu sänca. ≈ra≈andak tat taya¬adz sahü?</tt> <br/>
<b> Arilandiʔ zvaiɫ atuɫ tükka änu sänka. Ɣraɣandaʔ tat tay-aɫadz sahü?</b> <br/>
live-potent-3s calf this-n.s.nom only one year-ins / eat-potent-2s this-acc 1p-among Q<br/>
<i> This calf will live just one year! Will you be able to eat it with us?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Here the potential is used to refer to future events. The calf is able to live only one year because it will be killed; the question about eating, like the English, questions ability in order to question intent.
<blockquote> <tt> Hädak häts kicšiz vrazi gan.></tt> <br/>
<b> Hädaʔ häts ʔikšiz vrazi gan.”</b> <br/>
stink-3s spirit weak-m.s.nom before clan-acc<br/>
<i> A weak spirit stinks before the clan.”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Haläzä<u>t</u>u hü misaik pïzäk kä<u>b</u>ä¬ gi¬äk.</tt> <br/>
<b> Haläzäṯu hü misaiʔ pïzäʔ ʔäḇäɫ giɫäʔ.</b> <br/>
enter-3p not word-pl 3s-father-gen head-loc boy-gen<br/>
<i> The words of the father do not penetrate the boy's head.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Läzak sänz, ta%a zra%candak gargya zvayaʔ.</tt> <br/>
<b> Läzaʔ sänz, taŋa zraŋkandaʔ gargya zvayaʔ.</b> <br/>
go-3s year / and cut-potent-3s father throat-acc calf-gen<br/>
<i> A year goes by, and the father goes to cut the calf's throat.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The potential is literally “The father intends to go…”; its use emphasizes that the action is not completed.
<blockquote> <tt> <u>C</u>urnik gi¬az: <Aizlädi¬u zvai%! </tt> <br/>
<b> Ḵurniʔ giɫaz: “Aizlädiɫu zvaiŋ!</b> <br/>
speak-3s boy / hide-past.1s calf-acc / <br/>
<i> The boy speaks: “I hid the calf! </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Taɫanda¬iz <u>d</u>ulana%ca ta≈rag, ta%a aizlädi¬u <u>t</u>iɣi¬.></tt> <br/>
<b> Taɫandaɫiz ḏu-lanaŋka ta-ɣrag, taŋa aizlädiɫu ṯiɣiɫ.</b> <br/>
pour-potent-2s 1s-think-inf-ins 3s-blood-acc / and hide-past.1s quiet-loc<br/>
<i> I thought that you were coming to pour its blood, and I hid it in a quiet place.”</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Note the parenthetical “I think” expressed as a personal infinitive.
“Quiet place” is simply “quiet” in the locative, but in the feminine, as it’s still considered to modify <b>diɫa</b> ‘place’.
<blockquote> <tt> Cazik pïzä, < Gi¬az, läza %a ya≈a. </tt> <br/>
<b> Kaziʔ pïzä, “Giɫaz, läza ŋa yaɣa.</b> <br/>
order-3s father / son / go-imper and hunt-imper<br/>
<i> The father orders him: “Son, go out and hunt.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Tailäza ura im hakäd, ta%a zra≈a cama¬.</tt> <br/>
<b> Tailäza ura im haʔäd, taŋa zraɣa kamaɫ.</b> <br/>
seek-imper bear-acc or deer-acc and bring-imper hearth-loc<br/>
<i> Look for a bear or a deer and bring it home.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Sahizak tats idta Ädänä taitïnama.<</tt> <br/>
<b> Sahizaʔ tats idta Ädänä tai-tïnama.”</b> <br/>
be-subj-3s that give-pass.part-m.s.dat Ädänä 1p-meal<br/>
<i> What Ädänä gives will be our meal.”</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
“What Ädänä gives” is literally “that given Ädänä.”
<blockquote> <tt> Yaɣak gi¬az, ta%a sägik hakäd.</tt> <br/>
<b> Yaɣaʔ giɫaz, taŋa sägiʔ haʔäd.</b> <br/>
hunt-3s boy / and seize-3s deer-acc<br/>
<i> The boy hunts, and seizes a deer.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Lictik cumayaz itrïna¬ gi¬äk, banats lüvui hü haʔäd.</tt> <br/>
<b> Liktiʔ kumayaz itrïnaɫ giɫäʔ, banats lüvui hü haʔäd.</b> <br/>
stand-3s peace heart-loc boy-gen / because love-past.3s not deer-acc<br/>
<i> There is peace in the boy's heart, because he did not love the deer.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Sahiz lüvä u%cäk camaɫ tari¬.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sahiz lüvä uŋkäʔ kamaɫ tariɫ.</b> <br/>
be-3s love person-gen hearth-gen 3s-f.s.gen<br/>
<i> A person's love is in their hearth.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
This line, and the “weak spirit” line, are Obenzayet proverbs, and the story can be said to be built to explain them.
<h2><a name="Sample2">Sample text 2: I know a boy</a></h2>
This text is provided by Pansäla Arabäʔ; it’s the lyrics of a popular song, <b>Nakuika ḡimaɫa</b>. Naviu songs were traditionally sung to an accompaniment of drums and nuarta, a stringed instrument made from an armadillo shell, resembling the charango. It’s written in short rhymed couplets of six syllables each; Naviu poetry is not based on alliteration.
<p>The theme is typical: lovers riding off carelessly into the steppe to enjoy themselves. The word for the boy, <b>nakuika</b>, makes it clear that they are unmarried. The nomads were not very scrupulous about chastity, and such escapades were certainly possible in a culture where young women not only rode horses as well as the men, but defended their settlements alone when the men were off hunting or raiding. Except in noble lineages, young people could generally choose their own partners. There is a hint of paternal disapproval, but it does not seem to be very serious; the father’s complaint is likely to be about idleness, not immorality.
<blockquote> <tt> Nacuica gim¬a </tt> <br/>
<b> Nakuika ḡimaɫa </b> <br/>
young.man-acc know-1s<br/>
<i> I know a boy</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> vicßuyä satayä </tt> <br/>
<b> vikšuyä satayä.</b> <br/>
hair-pl.gen long-pl.gen<br/>
<i> With long hair</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Diyumu sa¬a ta¬</tt> <br/>
<b> Diyumu saɫa taɫ </b> <br/>
ride-1p I he<br/>
<i> We ride together</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Kuarti¬ tainära¬</tt> <br/>
<b> ʔuartiɫ tai-näraɫ </b> <br/>
barren-n.s.loc 1p-place-loc<br/>
<i> To our lonely spot</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Sä<u>t</u>u kuak nintyak</tt> <br/>
<b> Säṯu ʔuaiʔ nintyaʔ</b> <br/>
be-3p eye-pl brown-f.pl<br/>
<i> His eyes are brown</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Padi tuga¬a hak</tt> <br/>
<b> Padi tugaɫa haʔ</b> <br/>
deep-f fall-1s in <br/>
<i> I fall deep inside them</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Sahiz lu%ta hä≈i</tt> <br/>
<b> Sahiz luŋta häɣi</b> <br/>
be-3s bow skillful-f<br/>
<i> His bow is skillful</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Lüva¬a mu<u>t</u>agi</tt> <br/>
<b> Lüvaɫa muṯagi</b> <br/>
love-1s kiss-pl.acc<br/>
<i> I love his kisses</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Nuyama näkßuga</tt> <br/>
<b> Nuyama näkšuga</b> <br/>
have.sex-impf.1p night-ins<br/>
<i> We made love at night</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> hak uyai% gurayä</tt> <br/>
<b> haʔ uyaiŋ gurayä</b> <br/>
in howl-pl.acc lion-pl.gen<br/>
<i> While lions roared</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ya≈aya tapïzä</tt> <br/>
<b> Yaɣaya ta-pïzä</b> <br/>
hunt-impf.3s 3s-father<br/>
<i> His father sought us</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> ca¬andik hü ta¬a</tt> <br/>
<b> kaɫandiʔ hü taɫa</b> <br/>
find-potent-3s not we.acc<br/>
<i> But could not find us</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></h2>
Velarized consonants are indexed after non-velarized (e.g. <b>ṯ</b> after <b>t</b>). <b>ɣ ʔ</b> come at the end.
<p>If no noun form is provided, use the infinitive (e.g. <b>ahulag</b> = ‘a scream’).
<p>Genders are provided for nouns. ne = epicene; the citation form is masculine but the word can also be declined as feminine.
<p>[*] indicates a word derived from proto-Eastern.
<br/>[V] indicates a word borrowed from Verdurian.
<p>727 words
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> Ädänä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> a god [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ädi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> wood [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ädriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> wooden</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> äḏüa</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> powerful [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> äḏüadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> power</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ahulag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> yell, scream</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aidi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> lake [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aiga</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> thorn [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aigriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> thorny; sharp</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ailadanz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Eleď [Cuêzi Eìledan]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aisa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> horse blood</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aisag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> cut a horse’s neck and drink the blood, for sustenance [Coruo aisâ ‘pierce’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aitaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> summer [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aittiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> summery</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aiz</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> from, out of</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aizlädag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> hide [‘out of the light’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> alas</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> nose [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> alüra</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> wrist [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> alutaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> grammar [V aluatas]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aɫadz</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> among [related to ‘middle’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aɫaḏz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> center, middle</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aɫaɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> middle, central [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aɫaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> earth, world; Almea [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aɫkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> human [‘earther’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> än</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> chief, primary, major [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> anäraz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> headman, chief [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> änkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> boss [‘first’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> anṯiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> some [‘one-two’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> änu</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> one [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aŋkalkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> herdsman</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aŋkaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> herd [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> äpas</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> wealth [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> äpatiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> wealthy, rich</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> arabaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> tree [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> arats</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> storm; the storm god [Meťelyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> arilag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> live [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ariz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> my [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Asan</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Ešan, a city and state on Lake Bérunor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ata</b> </td> <td> <i> cj</i> </td> <td> but, however [poss. aʔ taŋa ‘against and’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ataviz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Attafei; name of several Obenzayan kings [Caď., from Tžuro]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ats</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> this one </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> atsanz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> school [V ečom]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> avä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> grandfather [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> avaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> blue [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> avara</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> grandmother [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> avrahaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> refuse, abstain [‘against act’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> avräna</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> oats [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> azistun</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> church [V aiďeton]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aʔ</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> against [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aʔban</b> </td> <td> <i> cj</i> </td> <td> despite</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aʔia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> hear, listen [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aʔriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> audible</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aɣihaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> stab [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bahadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> lowness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bahiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> low [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bakšia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> change pasturage; trek, travel (to stay) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bägaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> horsetail; bow (for a fiddle); string (for an archer’s bow) [Meťelyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bagiɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> vision, hallucination [Coruo, cf. Cuêzi bēge ‘favor’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bagimag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> hallucinate, have a vision</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> baliḏ</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> silver [Elkarîl belidd]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> balidriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> silvery, of silver</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> banats</b> </td> <td> <i> cj</i> </td> <td> because [‘this way’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> banaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> way, path; manner [Cuêzi banas]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bansats</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> distant, far [‘long way’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> baraʔ</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> arm [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bäradz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> fear</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bärag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> fear [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bärka</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> fearful, timid</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> baḡuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> quarter, one fourth [Cuêzi bargau]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Bäruks</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> Barakhinei</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Bäruḵünz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Barakhún [Bara(khun) + ‘land’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bäruma</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> mountain [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bärubriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> mountainous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bätakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> forty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bäts</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> cock, rooster [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bäʔua</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> four [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bäɫiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> first [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bäɣia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> throw [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bäʔtuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> quartet, group of four; four-fold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Biluɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> Beloa, capital of Bešbalic</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bisbalag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> share, distribute (esp. spoils) [Somoyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bisbalduɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> company, band; (pl.) the Bešbalicu [‘sharers’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bisbalta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> share, portion [‘shared’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bukaŋ </b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> strike, hit, beat [imitative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bukši</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> mouth [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bukz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> blow, punch </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> büna</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> cow [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bünz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> bull [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> buḡiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> big [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bütra</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> betray</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bütrakaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> betrayer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dadi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> finger [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dadriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> daily</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> giving</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dädz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> flatness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dafta</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> covered; clothed</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> ten [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dakšiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> tenth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dakštuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> group of ten; ten-fold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> daluriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> kingly, royal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> daluz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> king [V dalu]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> daɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> hard [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> daŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> give (participles idta, idka) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dän</b> </td> <td> <i>a</i> </td> <td> flat [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dänz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> day [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> daräɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> behind, in back of [‘back’ loc.]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> daraz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> back [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dartiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> anterior, in back</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> davag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> cover; wear </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> digama</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> flesh [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> digantiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> physical, fleshly; mortal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dïkadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> humility</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dïka</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> humble</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dïkmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> humble (someone), abase</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dïmä</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> third [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dindakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> thirty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dinduɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> trio, trinity; three-fold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dïŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> three [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dits</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> baby, infant [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> diɫa</b> </td> <td> <i> na</i> </td> <td> place [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dïs</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> a ride; journey; a measure of about 50 miles (root di-)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Dïstai</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> Deštai</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> diyä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> ride </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> diyka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> rider, nomad [‘riding’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> duna</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> magical energy [Caď. duneia ‘energy’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dünz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> house [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> duŋka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> magician, wizard</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḏuŋadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> anger, wrath</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḏuŋiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> angry</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḏunmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> anger, annoy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gäkšiɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> weight [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gakšia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> steal, rob [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gakšika</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> robber, thief</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gälara</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> river [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gäli</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> stick, stem; (pl.) the Gelyet [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gäna</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> beak [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ganag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> burn [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ganz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> tribe, clan [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gargi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> throat [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gävadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> purity</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gäviz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> pure [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gäʔ</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> lizard [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> giɫa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> girl (before puberty)</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> giɫadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> childhood</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> giɫaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> boy (before puberty) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gits</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> helmet [Elkarîl gît ‘armor’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gruɣa</b> </td> <td> <i> na</i> </td> <td> turnip [V gruřa]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḡäts</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> metal [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḡätriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> metallic</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḡimag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> know</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḡuduz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> rat [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḡüra</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> lion; (pl.) Küret tribe [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hädä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> stink [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hadaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> travel (with intention of returning) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hädriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> stinky, noisome</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hägia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> leave; abandon [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haläzadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> entrance; portal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haläzaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> enter, go in; become [‘in-go’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haliɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> leaf [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> häradz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> loudness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> häraziz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> green [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> häriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> loud [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> häts</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> spirit, soul [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hättiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> spritiual</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haʔ</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> in, inside </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haʔädz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> deer [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haɣi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> plant [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> häɣiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> skillful [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haɣriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> vegetal, herbal, made of plants</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haɣuz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> shrine [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hiraʔ</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> enemy [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hirtiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> inimical, vicious, villainous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hivuɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> mayor [V řivo] </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> no (as modifier), none, not any</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hizunz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> policeman, town guardsman [Verdurian hežom ‘guard’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hluṯiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> evil [Cuêzi exlûrte]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hudafta</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> bare, naked</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hudadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> fullness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hudiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> full [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hü</b> </td> <td> <i> pt</i> </td> <td> no, not </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hüdz</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> never</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hudḡimag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> forget [‘never know’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hüḵa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> color [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hükriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> colorful</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> huraŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> play [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hurs</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> game</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> huvradiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> same; self [‘not other’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> idta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> gift</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> iḵä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> elcar [Elkarîl]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ikšarä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> the afterworld, paradise [Caď. Iscaria]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> im</b> </td> <td> <i> cj</i> </td> <td> or</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> itrïn</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> heart [Cuêzi itīran]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ivrukaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> bookish, nerdy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ivruɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> book; (pl.) literature, culture [Verdurian ivro]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Izräka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> the Eärdur [Cuêzi Isreica]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kailiraz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> romance, ballad [Cuêzi coêliras ‘devotion’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaiɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> they [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaipas</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> seven [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaipakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> seventy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaipiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> seventh</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaitag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> shelter, take refuge</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> käḵuɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> kind, type [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kalinz</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> castle, fort; name of a city [Caď. calenos]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kälia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> gather [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Kälniɫä</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> the Selnara river [‘gather beauty’— folk etymology from Meťelyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaɫag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> get, acquire; find [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaɫḵaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> heel (of foot or hand) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaɫta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> a find, a discovery; loot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kama</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> hearth, home [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kanduɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> family [‘home group’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kantiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> domestic, homely</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> käpia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> revere, worship [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> käpinz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> reverence; funeral games</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> karanz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> shame [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> karanka</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> shameful, dishonorable</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> karanmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> shame, dishonor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> karaɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> beside, next to</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> karaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> side [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Kataza</b> </td> <td> <i> na</i> </td> <td> Kačanza</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kats</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> bone [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaya</b> </td> <td> <i> na</i> </td> <td> shelter [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kazia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> order, command [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kariz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> their</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Kazinä</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> Caďinorian</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Kazinaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> the Caďinorian empire [Caď. Caďinas]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kaɣra</b> </td> <td> <i> na</i> </td> <td> grain [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kidaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> liver [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kihia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> slip [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kiluŋ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> mercury [Elkarîl khîlông]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kiɫal</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> sky; also the name of a god [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kiɫaltiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> celestial</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kïra</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> body [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kïrka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> piece, part, fraction [‘small body’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Kirzuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> the Kerzu, a river in Curiya and Deštai</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kïsag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> wash, clean</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kritadz</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> happiness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kritiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> happy, glad [Caď. cretes]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> krivag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> write [V crivan]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> krivz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> text, letter</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kriza</b> </td> <td> <i> na</i> </td> <td> mare </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšadz</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> forever, always</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšälaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> breathe [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšälka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> animal [‘breather’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšänaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> come [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšaŋga</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> fowl [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšaradz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> difficulty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšaruɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> difficult [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšas</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> roof [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšats</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> oasis [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšaya</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> neck [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšaʔiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> every, all [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšaɣi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> vagina [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšüda</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> pig [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšutia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> die </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšutikaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> dead man, corpse</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšutiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> dead [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšuṯ</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> deceitful, lying [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kšuṯag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> lie, deceive</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kumaitiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> peaceful, harmonious</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kumayaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> peace, harmony [Cuêzi corumayas]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kupriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> wise, smart, intelligent [Cuêzi cueporo]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Kurza</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> Curiyan, Coruo, Karazi [from a Karazi language]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kurag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> buy [Caď. currec ‘hold/grasp’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kuyilag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> like, enjoy [Cuêzi coêli]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵi</b> </td> <td> <i> intj</i> </td> <td> turn right!</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ḵinan</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Kina, capital of Kačanza</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵitsiḏ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> gold [Elkarîl qichidd]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵitsidriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> golden</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵuba</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> under [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵuḏa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> elbow [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵukz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> a hallucinogenic drink [Meťelyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ḵuɫza</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> Kulža, capital of Curiya</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ḵuɫzariz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> Kulžan </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵundiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> wonderful, marvelous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵunkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> advisor, counsellor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵunsia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> advise, counselm </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵunz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> wonder, marvel [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵünz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> land [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵuran</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> language, speech [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵuraŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> argue [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵurnag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> speak, say, talk [from ‘language’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵurnka</b> </td> <td> <i> cj</i> </td> <td> therefore, thus [‘(that) said’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵurnta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> semtence, utterance, dictum; proverb [‘something said’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ḵus</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> egg (root ku-) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> läbriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> milky; cloudy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lädia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> honor, recognize, acknowledge</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lädz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> honor; acknowledgment [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lais</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> wolf [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lakšia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> rise, lift [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lälaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> see [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> läma</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> milk; cloud, mist; name of Lake Bérunor [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lanaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> think [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> länz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> apple [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> laŋ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> half</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lariz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> your (s.) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lärriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> visible</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lättiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> honorable</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lävani</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> tongue [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lävadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> newness, novelty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lävkadz</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> spring (season) [‘sprout time’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lävkiz</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> sprout, seeding</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> läviz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> new [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> läzmaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> lead (to), reach [‘make go’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> läzaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> go [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> laʔ</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> you (sg.) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> laɫadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> beauty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> laɫiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> beautiful [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lakag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> sell, trade, acquire by trading [Caď. lescen]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lakka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> vendor, trader</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lata</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> coin [Caď. leta]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> liktag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> stand; exist, there is/are [‘be tall’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> liŋḵa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> medicine, remedy; charm, potion [Caď. lenka]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> liŋḵaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> healer, potion-maker</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> liɣadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> height</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> liɣiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> high, tall [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ludadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Loya, a city in Obenzaya [‘pasturage’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ludi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> pasture; plain; (in pl.) the Barbarian Plain [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ludaŋ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> steel [Elkarîl lundông]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lufta</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> beloved; boyfriend, girlfriend</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> luŋa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> bend [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> luŋmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> bend</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> luŋta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> curved; bow </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lutia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> run out, be missing; lack, need</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lutta</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> missing, lacking</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lüvä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> love [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lüvag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> love [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Luznai</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> Lusunáe, a city in Deštai</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mädag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> work</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mäḏuɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> work [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mada</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> table [Caď. medeta]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> madaluz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> prince [‘king’s son’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> madriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> manual, by hand; laborious</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> madz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> son [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> magaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> paste [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mahar</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> black [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> maharkiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> dark [diminutive of mahar]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Maharna</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> the Meuna river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> maiɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> water [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> makiḏ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> diamond [Elkarîl maqhidd]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> makšai</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> lady, mistress; also the name of a goddess [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> makš</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> lord, master; (pl) a tribe, the Makši [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Makuz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> an Amakui tribesman [Amakui]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mäladz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> softness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mälata</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> best</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mälatiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> better [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mäliz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> soft [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> malya</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> bee [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Manütavi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> an Obenzayan city [‘water camp’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> manuz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> hand [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> märia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> consider [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mariz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> watery; liquid</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> märus</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> brain [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> masti</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> field, farm [V mesti]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mastikaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> farmer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mata</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> ewe</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mats</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> sheep, ram [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mauʔ</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> you (pl) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mavuḏaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> iron [Cuêzi mavordas]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mavudriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> made of iron</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mayala</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> woman, wife [Gelyet mayala ‘woman’ < mayaliz ‘soft’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mayalka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> maiden, (marriageable) girl, young woman</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mayaltiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> feminine, female</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mäzaraz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> lord, noble [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mäɣi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> witch</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mikriḏ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> obsidian [Elkarîl mîqhridd]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mikšak</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> kohl, antimony [Elkarîl miqchek]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mikšuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> bag, sack [Caď. miscu]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mikšumüɫa</b> </td> <td> <i> f</i> </td> <td> saddlebag</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> miɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> thousand [V mil]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mirastaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> market [Caďinor merast]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> misaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> word [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mistag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> smile</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mïzä</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> mother [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> muha</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> insect [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> müḵag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> hurt, harm, wound</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> müɫa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> saddle [Coruo]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mukšiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> many [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> müra</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> awe, numinousness [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> muriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> your (pl.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mürtiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> awesome, numinous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mutadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> sadness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mutiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> sad</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> muṯag</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> kiss [imitative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naba</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> over, above, on [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nabak</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> armor [‘over-thing’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nabakta</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> armored; soldier</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nabaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> nephew [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nädakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> ninety</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naga</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> daughter [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> newborn [‘being born’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> näkšuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> night [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nakuika</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> young man (esp. before marriage), youth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nakuyag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> become mature; undergo the adulthood ceremony [V nacuyát]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> näɫadz</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> autumn, fall [‘rain time’, as the rains are more common then]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> näɫä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> rain [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> näɫaŋ </b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> rain</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> namaŋ </b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> give birth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> näŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> be born (root na-) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nära</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> place, location [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> narmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> give suck (of horses) [Meťelyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> natïnama</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> birth celebration [‘birth-meal’, loan-translation of V nesčena]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> navri</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> nine [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> navriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> ninth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> näz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> wedding [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naɣa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> foot [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naʔi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> moon [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naʔkai</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> nymph, a femael celestial said to live on the moons</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nïkša</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> snow [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nikšadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> winter [‘snow time’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Nikši</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> the Neši, the main river of Obenzaya [Caď. Nescis]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nïkši</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> smoke [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nïkšia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> snow </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nïkšmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> smoke</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> niɫä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> loveliness [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> niɫtiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> lovely, pretty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nintiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> nutty; brown</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ninkaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> testicle [‘little nut’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ninz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> nut [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nïradz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> want, desire</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nïraŋ </b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> want, desire</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> niruɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> machine, device [V niru]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nuarag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> curl up, roll up</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nuarta</b> </td> <td> <i> a, nf</i> </td> <td> curled up; armadillo; lyre, fiddle </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nüḵag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> stop, finish</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> numa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> breast</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nümi</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> goddess (when her sex is emphasized)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nümuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> god [Cuêzi nūmiu] </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nümuz</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> male god (when his sex is emphasized)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nünia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> name, call (someone)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nuntiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> godly, divine</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nünz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> name [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nurä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> give suck [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nurka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> wet-nurse (who is not the mother)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nütavi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> camp</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nütavag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> camp, stay; rest [Coruo nòteve]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nuyag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> have sex, make love</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nuika</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> whore, prostitute; concubine [‘making love’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nuitiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> sexual, erotic, bawdy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ŋa</b> </td> <td> <i> cj</i> </td> <td> and (for non-sentence constituents) [taŋa]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> padadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> depth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> padiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> deep [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> palag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> press [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> palniruɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> printing press [‘press-machine’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> palta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> felt; clothing [‘pressed’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> paɫaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> floor; foundation [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> paɫtiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> basic, foundational</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> paɫsa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> flea [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> panz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> man; husband; horseman, warrior [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pantiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> masculine, manly, male</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pätakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> fifty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pätaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> sing, recite poems [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pätz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> song, poem</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> päṯiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> fifth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> päṯu</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> five [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> päṯuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> quintet, group of five; five-fold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pïdia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> drink [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pïdz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> drink, beverage</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pikaz</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> sting, pierce [imitative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pikkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> scorpion [imitative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Pilauɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> Peleu, a small nation north of Obenzaya</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> piṯadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> smallness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> piṯaɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> left hand; north [‘small (hand)’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> piṯiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> little, small [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pïzadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> fatherhood, paternity</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pïzä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> father [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pliruɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> pleasure [Ver. plero]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> p̄adä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> stone, rock</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> p̄adariz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> rocky, stony; name of a river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> p̄atkä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> pebble, gravel</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> p̄unaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> distribute; celebrate [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ragz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> horn (of animal); (colloq.) penis [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rakat</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> cart, wagon</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> räkšiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> horrible, grotesque, monstrous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> räkšuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> monster, a horror</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ramaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> count [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rams</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> count; number</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> raŋadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> holiness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ränadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> width</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rän</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> wide [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> raŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> holy, sacred [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> raŋki</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> penis [*rakni ‘thigh’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Raŋtaɫa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> goddess of the dead [‘sacred fire’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> räs</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> righteousness, honesty, good dealings [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rästiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> righteous, honest</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rava</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> spine [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ridz</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> now [from rïs]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rikultag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> harvest [V recoltë]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rilag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> sow [V relir]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rilz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> plow </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rimiḏ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> emerald [Elkarîl rîmiddên]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rïs</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> here</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> risaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> seed [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ristadag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> barter, exchange, switch [‘here to there’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ritaḏ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Eretald, the ‘civilized countries’ [V Eretald]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rits</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> kidney [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> riʔadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> clearness, clarity</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> riʔiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> clear [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rïɣaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> look, watch, observe [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rïɣtiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> evident, obvious</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> riznai</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> barn [V riznáe]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rudz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> dog</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rugag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> rule, govern [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rukka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> governor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rüɣi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> abdomen, belly</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rutadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> goodness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rutiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> good [Cuêzi rûte]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rütriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> icy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> rüts</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> ice [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ruyag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> spin, twirl</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ruɣadiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> red [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sadz</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> away from; without [related to ‘long’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> saḏa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> queen, princess [Caď. sadua]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sädiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> yearly, annual</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sägia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> seize [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sahadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> state, situation </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sahä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> be [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sahi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> mange [Coruo sesi ‘spots’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sahriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> mangy, spotty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sahü</b> </td> <td> <i> pt</i> </td> <td> is it? (question-forming particle) [sahiz hü ‘is not’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> säladz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> strength</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> säl</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> strong [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> salirag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> roll [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sanadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> dream</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sanaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> dream [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sanz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> soil, ground [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sänz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> year [*]
<br/><i>daräl ṯundakš säniʔ</i> twenty years ago </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> saŋka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> pine [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> säran</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> east [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sarz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> sword [Elkarîl char]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sata</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> six [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> satadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> length</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> satakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> sixty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> satiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> sixth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sats</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> long</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> satuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> sextet, group of six; six-fold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> säza</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> sister [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> saɫa</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> I [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sigäḏiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> hundredth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sigäḏu</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> hundred [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sinä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> mother-in-law [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sizadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> thirst</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sizkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> vampire; humanoid monster that dessicates humans</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> siziz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> thirsty [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sïɫai</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> lake [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sïɣa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> berry [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> suladz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> youth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> suliz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> young [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sularuɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> monk [V suloro]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sumirä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> study, read [Caď. sumerir]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> süradz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> lateness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> süriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> late [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tadiniz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> fourth [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taduz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> palm (of hand) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tadz</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> there (that place)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tähiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> our</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tähu</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> we [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taila</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> rib [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tailäzaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> chase, pursue; seek [‘tail-go’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tailäzta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> prey, target</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Täkir</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Taicer, capital of Deštai</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taḵa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> spot, mark [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taḵmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> mark, brand</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> takšadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> sufficiency, satiety</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> takšaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> enough, sufficient [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> he, she, it [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taɫa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> fire [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taɫaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> pour [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taɫḡüra</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> dragon [‘fire-lion’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taɫtiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> fiery</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taɫz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> cup, mug [from ‘pour’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taŋa</b> </td> <td> <i> cj</i> </td> <td> moreover, and, also [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> taŋkiz</b> </td> <td> <i> s</i> </td> <td> narrow [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tapas</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> mole (animal) [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tärä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> move [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tariz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> his, her, its</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tats</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> point [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tats</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> that, that one; (answer to a question) yes [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> täɣa</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> trunk, chest [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tïbaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> horse [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tidz</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> then, at that time</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tiḡ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> one third [Elkarîl thîx]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tiluḏag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> heal, cure [Elkarîl tlyôrd]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tiluďka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> healer, physician</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tïnama</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> meal, food [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tïvria</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> feel [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tsur</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> glaze; glass [Elkarîl chur]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tsurriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> glassy, glazed</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tugag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> fall, drop [imitative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tükka</b> </td> <td> <i> adv</i> </td> <td> merely, only [‘mere’ + ins.]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tükz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> mere; miserable, inconsequential</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> door [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tädriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> woolen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯänz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> wool [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯiɣiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> quiet [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯuladz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> smoothness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯul</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> smooth [*]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯuli</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> breeze [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯuna</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> two [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯundakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> twenty </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ṯunduɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> pair, duo, couple; two-fold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uau</b> </td> <td> <i> intj</i> </td> <td> turn left!</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ubiŋ </b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> thunder [Meťelyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ubiŋkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> Obenzayan, Obenzayet</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ubiŋaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Obenzaya</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ukšaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> look for, search [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uladz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> brightness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uliz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> bright, shiny [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uɫadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> age</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uɫal</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> old [*]
<br/><i>Sahiz taɫai ṯundakš säniʔ</i> He is twenty years old </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uɫaḵaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> elder, senior</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uŋga</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> fingernail, toenail [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uŋka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> person, individual [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uräŋki</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> spider [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uraz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> bear [Cuêzi urezos]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> urduz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> bird [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> urunz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> eagle [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uya</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> howl, roar</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> uyä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> howl, roar [imitative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Vaḏira</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> Verduria [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Vaḏirkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> Verdurian</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vaŋs</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> hawk, falcon [Somoyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Viɣä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> Vižaya, the capital of Obenzaya [V, related to viša ‘cherry’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vikšiɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> hair</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vikšika</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> beard [‘little hair’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vikširiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> hairy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vlagaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> sheathe, insert</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vitraz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> well, spring (of water) [Meťelyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vlahiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> yellow [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vraḏaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> fraternity, brotherhood, community</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vradiḡimag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> recall, remember [‘know again’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vradiḡinta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> anecdote, tale [‘recalled’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vradiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> second; another, other, later, again [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vraḏuɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> brother, fellow tribesman [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vrahaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> walk; act, behave [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vrahs</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> walk; act, action</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vranaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> take [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vranaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> grass [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vrantiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> grassy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vraskaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> ancestor; especially, an ancestral spirit to be worshipped and placated [‘before-person’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vrazi</b> </td> <td> <i> pp</i> </td> <td> before, in front of [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vraʔadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> coldness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vraʔiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> cold [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vrihadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> shortness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vrihiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> short [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vriɣaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> fight [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> vuḵ</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> primary horse [Western vog ‘horse’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yagakš</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> eighty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yagduɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> octet, group of eight; eight-fold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yagi</b> </td> <td> <i> #</i> </td> <td> eight [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yagiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> eighth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yäkšuɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> feather [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yälaɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> knee [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yarta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> flower; (colloq.) vulva [*] </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yaɣaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> hunt [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> yaɣka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> hunter</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zaka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> straw</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zaraz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> bread [Caďinor zeros ‘flatcake’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zarmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> bake [‘make bread’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zarnka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> baker</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zavag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> owe; sin [V devir]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zavka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> sinner; debtor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zinä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> forest [Cuêzi azienar]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Zinapadiz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> the forest of Kalimantan</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zintakaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> city-dweller, city </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Zintaläviz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> a city in Obenzaya [‘new town’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zintaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> city, town [Cuêzi sindas]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zladä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> jump [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zläda</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> light [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zlädriz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> lit, alight</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zraŋkaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> cut [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zraṯiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> ugly </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zraɣaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> touch; bring [derives from two merged pE roots]
<br/><i> ḏu-zraɣaɫi hü</i> I don’t care </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zraɣta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> load, cargo</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Zurai</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> Zorai, a fort and settlement in southern Obenzaya</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zurimaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> mass (eccl.) [V zurem]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> zvaiɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> calf [Western sbaîu]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔäḇaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> head [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔädi</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> pot, pan [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔädki</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> small pot, pan</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> buttocks [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaiban</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> how, why [‘which way’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaibanaz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> reason, cause [‘why’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaidiɫa</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> where [‘what place’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaidz</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> when </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaiɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> who [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaimukšiz </b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> how many [‘which many’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> pr</i> </td> <td> which </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔakšaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> finish, end [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔap̄as</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> fruit [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaruɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> right hand; south [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔaṯaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> bear, tolerate, endure [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔavraɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> goat [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔibaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> boil; cook [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔibkaiz</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> cook</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔikšadz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> weakness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔikšiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> weak [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔilama</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> hill [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔiladz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> bravery</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔiliz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> brave, valiant</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔïradz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> slavery</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔïra</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> slave [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔua</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> eye [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔuakšï</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> remove, take away [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔuakšta</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> garbage, detritus</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔuaŋka</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> hip [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔuänz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> ball [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔuaraz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> hard soil unsuitable for grass [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔuartiz</b> </td> <td> <i> a</i> </td> <td> barren, bare; isolated</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔuaʔ</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> tail [*] </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔudz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> hole [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʔuivuɫ</b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> owl [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣraba</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> wadi, dry gully that flows with water in the rainy season [Meťelyi]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣraban</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> west [from ‘dusk’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Ɣrabanä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> the Rhânor mountains [‘west-gen’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣrabuɫ </b> </td> <td> <i> nn</i> </td> <td> twilight; dusk, sunset [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣrakšä</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> growth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣrakšia</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> grow [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣrag</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> blood</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣraɣaŋ</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> eat [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣraɣmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> feed [‘make eat’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣɫayag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> shine [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣɫaɣä</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> kill, murder [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣɫaɣka</b> </td> <td> <i> ne</i> </td> <td> killer, or something shining; name of a goddess</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣɫuraz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> leg [*]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣüna</b> </td> <td> <i> nf</i> </td> <td> cloth, fabric, textile [Cuêxi xeunnâ]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣünmag</b> </td> <td> <i> v</i> </td> <td> weave</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣuradz</b> </td> <td> <i> nm</i> </td> <td> health</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɣuriz</b> </td> <td> <i> n</i> </td> <td> healthy</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<h3><a name="ONaviu">Other Naviu languages</a></h3>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0B000"> <td> word</td> <td> language</td> <td> gloss</td> <td> Obenzayet form</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Eluyek </td> <td> Eluyet </td> <td> Eluyet </td> <td> ʔiliz ‘brave’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Makšik</td> <td> Eluyet</td> <td> Makši </td> <td> Makšiʔ ‘masters’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> bečes</td> <td> Eluyet</td> <td> pepec vision [Coruo, cf. Cuêzi bēge ‘favor’]</td> <td> bagiɫ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> griyes</td> <td> Eluyet</td> <td> dark-colored horse</td> <td> kriza ‘mare’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Gelyet</td> <td> Gelyet</td> <td> root, base</td> <td> gälyaʔ ‘stems’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> graʔag</td> <td> Gelyet</td> <td> eat, munch</td> <td> gargi ‘throat’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Hiuraz</td> <td> Gelyet</td> <td> bear-eye</td> <td> ʔuäraz</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Läŋuraz</td> <td> Gelyet</td> <td> half-bear</td> <td> laŋuraz</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> vagžia</td> <td> Gelyet </td> <td> trek</td> <td> bakšia</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> napag</td> <td> Gelyet</td> <td> gauntlet</td> <td> nabak ‘armor’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Bešbalicu</td> <td> Bešbalicu</td> <td> band (lit., those who share)</td> <td> bisbalduɫ ‘band’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> fägia</td> <td> Bešbalicu</td> <td> burn in triumph</td> <td> hägia ‘abandon’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Küret</td> <td> Küret </td> <td> lions</td> <td> ḡüraiʔ </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Malia</td> <td> Küret</td> <td> bee</td> <td> malya</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> haxuz</td> <td> Seia</td> <td> idol, holy thing</td> <td> haɣuz ‘shrine’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> Seia</td> <td> Seia</td> <td> Eastern</td> <td> säran</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> dargura</td> <td> early Naviu</td> <td> dragon (source of Caď. dracor)</td> <td> taɫḡüra</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
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