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<h1>A native grammar of Caďinor</h1>
<img src="illo/cadhrev.gif" align=right width="269" height="317" title="Shm Revouse" alt="[A picture of Shm Revouse. He is wearing a süpa.]">
<blockquote>
<p><cite>
Rather than post the chapter on Caďinor from Languages of Almea-- one more tediously balanced and linguistically informed overview-- I've decided to post a translation of <b>Pere aluatas i Caďinor</b>, by the Verdurian scholar Šm Fatandor Revouse, published in 3417, and intended for avisar (secondary school) students. It should not be taken as the best Verdurians can do; that would be the scholarly, three-volume <b>Aluatas Šriftanáei Caďinei</b> (University Grammar of Caďinor). I've chosen Revouse because it's popular and typical of Verdurian attitudes toward languages-- it's like a Verdurian Teach Yourself.</cite></p>
<p><cite>I've added the major part of each of Revouse's chapters, minus exercises and readings. I've added commentary in paragraphs like this one-- mostly to present additional material; I assume the reader is capable of discounting Revouse's linguistic naïveté and chauvinism.</cite></p>
<p><cite>I've modified the presentation to make it easy for modern tastes: added paragraph breaks, boldfaced definitions, turned lists into bullet points, used color for emphasis in place of Revouse's bracketing. I also supply Revouse's actual grammatical terms, which are the standard Verdurian terms, though most of them are direct borrowings from Caďinor.</cite></p>
<p><cite>Another page contains some items neglected by Revouse: <a href="cadhex.htm">extended examples; Caďinor-to-Verdurian sound changes; and derivational morphology</a>. A <a href="cadhlex.htm">Caďinor lexicon</a>, with comparisons to the daughter languages, is also available.</cite></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<h2><a name="contents">Contents</a> <font size=-1><a href="virtuver.htm">[To Virtual Verduria]</a></font></h2>
<p><b><a href="#Introduction">Introduction to Caďinor</a></b>
<font size=-1><i><a href="#Orthography">Orthography</a>
<a href="#Diacritics">Diacritics</a>
<a href="#Punctuation">Punctuation</a>
<a href="#sentence">The sentence</a>
<a href="#chain">The chain of being</a> </i></font></p>
<p><b><a href="#Adjectives">Adjectives, or expressions of quality</a> </b>
<font size=-1><i><a href="#Gender">Gender</a>
<a href="#Number">Number</a>
<a href="#Case">Case</a>
<a href="#first">First,</a>
<a href="#second">second,</a>
<a href="#third">third declension</a>
<a href="#Memorizing">Memorizing the forms</a>
<a href="#AdjectivesNouns">Adjectives and nouns</a>
<a href="#Comparatives">Comparatives</a>
<a href="#Superlatives">Superlatives</a>
<a href="#fromverbs">Adjectives from verbs</a> </i></font></p>
<p><b><a href="#Nouns">Nouns, or names of things</a> </b>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Types">Types of nouns</a>
<a href="#NGender">Gender</a>
<a href="#wordcircles">The word-circles of nouns</a>
<a href="#CaseUsage">Case usage</a>
<a href="#Trustee">Trustee nouns [Pronouns]</a>
<a href="#Pointers">Pointers </a>
<a href="#Question">Question words </a>
<a href="#Quantity">Quantity words</a> </i></font></p>
<p><b><a href="#Relativizers,">Relativizers, or expressions of relation </a> </b><font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Numbers">Numbers</a>
<a href="#Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a>
<a href="#Prepositions">Prepositions</a> </i></font></p>
<p><b><a href="#Static">Static verbs, or expressions of state</a> </b>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#infinitive">Infinitive</a>
<a href="#present">Present tense</a>
<a href="#past">Past tense</a>
<a href="#anterior">Past anterior </a>
<a href="#remote">Remote present </a>
<a href="#remotepast">Remote past</a>
<a href="#imperative">Imperative</a>
<a href="#negative">Negative</a>
<a href="#Exceptional">Exceptional verbs</a> </i></font></p>
<p><b><a href="#Dynamic">Dynamic verbs, or descriptions of actions</a> </b><font size=-1><i>
<a href="#DynamicDefinite">Dynamic definite tenses</a>
<a href="#DynamicRemote">Dynamic remote tenses</a> </i></font></p>
<p><b><a href="#Adverbs">Adverbs, or expressions of manner</a> </b></p>
<p><b><a href="#Sentences">Sentences, or ensembles of objects acted upon </a> </b></p>
<hr>
<h2><a name="Introduction">Introduction to Caďinor</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h2>
<IMG Align=left SRC="empire.gif" width="453" height="251" alt="[A map of the Caďinorian empire at its height - Z.E. 1683. It reaches from west of the Eärdur to east of Sarnáe.]" title="The Caďinorian empire">
Caďinor is the language of our great ancestors the Caďinorians, who defeated the demons to form the greatest empire ever seen on Almea. The language we write, though the most sensitive and mellifluous of all the languages of men, is only a debased remnant of great Caďinor; and the language we speak is only a faint echo of what we write. To learn Caďinor is to learn correct speech, persuasive writing, clear thinking, and virtuous living. It is also the pathway to knowledge both ancient and modern, and is understood by educated men wherever Ervëa's legions trod. Because the very structure of Caďinor is that of the world, the language is a perfect reflection of the world, and thoughts expressed in Caďinor, of all languages, are the truest to reality and the freest of corruption.
<p>It goes without saying that no student will advance in religion, in philosophy, in law, in alchemy, in medicine, or in diplomacy, without a thorough knowledge of Caďinor; nor should the education of a noble or a scholar be considered complete without it. To lack this language is to lack a world.
<p>The best Caďinor is that of the mature Empire, from the reign of Benoras (1392) to the murder of Ďalir (2107), the greatest models being from the golden age from Ervëa's victory in Ctésifon (1624) till the civil war (1894). Excellent Caďinor was still written after this point, including of course the Aďivro (completed 2350), but in this period we find increasingly lax standards, jarring vocabulary, and sylistic excesses.
<h3><a name="Orthography">Orthography</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The alphabet of Caďinor is that of Verdurian, with some variations in the letters:
<p align="center"><img src="illo/cadhalph.gif" width="690" height="64" alt="u a o e i k p c b g d s th z t ď r ȟ l m f n v h"></p>
<p>The letters <img align="absmiddle" width="72" height="19" src="illo/cadhnotused.gif" alt="sh ch zh rh"> (<b>š č ž ř</b>) are not used in Caďinor.
<p>The sound of <img align="absmiddle" width="16" height="14" src="illo/cadhth.gif" alt="th"> (<b>ť</b>), called <i>ten</i>, is that of <b>ď</b>, but without voicing. Note that the letters <b>b g z ď v</b> have the same forms as <b>p c s ť f</b>, but without the voicing mark <b>~</b> [<i>vuáë</i>]. The <i>vuáë</i> indicates that a letter is pronounced with a buzzing in the throat; its absence indicates the letter is pronounced whispered, without this buzzing.
<p>The sound of <img align="absmiddle" width="15" height="17" src="illo/cadhh.gif" alt="h"> (<b>h</b>), called <i>oď</i>, is the sound of a heavy sigh; it is very similar to how the people of Ctésifon pronounce the letter <img align="absmiddle" src="illo/cadhkh.gif" alt="kh"> (<cite>Verdurian <b>h</b></cite>). If you simply expel your breath, you will pronounce an <b>h</b>.
<p>The sound of <img align="absmiddle" width="14" height="15" src="illo/cadhkh.gif" alt="kh"> (<b>ȟ</b>) is not pronounced as in Ctésifon, nor is it silent as in our language, but has a heavy gargling sound. The people of Barakhún still pronounce this letter in this way. Once you can pronounce <b>h</b>, you can learn to pronounce <b>ȟ</b> by moving the tongue forward until the breath sounds loud and turbulent.
<p>Every letter in a Caďinor word is pronounced, including difficult combinations as in PTOCOS 'block', CTOVOS 'roof'. There are no silent letters like our <img width="14" height="15" align="middle" src="illo/cadhkh.gif" alt="h"> (<b>h</b>), and no letters which can be used ambiguously, such as <b>i</b> and <b>y</b>, or <b>ye</b> and <b>ë</b>.
<blockquote>
<p><cite>The following chart may supplement Revouse's (generally accurate) descriptions. IPA equivalents are in <font color="red">red</font>, transliterations in <font color="black">black</font>.</cite></p>
<p align="center"><cite><img width="579" height="299" align="middle" src="illo/cadhsounds.gif" alt="CONSONANTS Labial stops: p b [p b]; dental stops: t d [t d]; velar stops: c g [k g]; uvular stops: k [q]; labial fricatives: f v [f v]; dental fricatives: th ď [θ ð]; alveolar fricatives: s z [s z]; velar fricatives: ȟ [x]; glottal fricatives: h [h]; labial nasals: m [m]; alveolar nasals: n [n]; dental liquids: l [l]; alveolar liquids: r [ɹ]; VOWELS i [i] (close front), u [u] (close back), e [e, ɛ] (open-mid/close-mid front), o [o, ɔ] (open-mid/close-mid back); a [a] (open front)"></cite></p>
<p><cite>See <a href="phonology.htm#cons">the Verdurian grammar</a> for the distinction between <b>C</b> and <b>K</b>. <b>R</b> is an approximant, as in British English; <b>L</b> is always clear, not dark; <b>Ť</b> is the initial sound in 'thin', <b>Ď</b> that in 'this'.</cite></p>
<p><cite>Revouse, focussing on letters, does not describe allophonic contrasts, such as between open and closed <b>E</b> and <b>O</b>. In classical Caďinor, these vowels are open (ɛ, ɔ as in 'pet, caught') in medial CV syllables and before final N and L, and closed (as in 'late, boat') elsewhere. Thus LEBES, SCOSOS, CTANEN, CALO = [lɛ bes, scɔ sos, kta nɛn, ka lo].</cite></p>
<p><cite>Also note that I and U represent semivowels before another vowel: thus IONIES = [jɔ njes], ȞUPUA = [xu pwa].</cite></p>
</blockquote>
<p>The order of the alphabet was established by the Emperor Antavon, along with the names of the letters:
<blockquote><b>IU IA O
<br>IE I EK
<br>PE CES BE GES DAȞ
<br>SAS ŤEN ZAS TEN ĎAȞ
<br>RA ȞOŤ LA
<br>ME FAS NE VAS HEK</b>
</blockquote>
<p>The only true Caďinorian letters are the majuscules, the ancient and correct forms of the letters. The minuscules are approximations of the Caďinorian letters used for speed of writing during the Dark Years.
<h3><a name="Diacritics">Diacritics</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
In the late Classical era, we find diacritics used to abbreviate words, chiefly combinations of vowels.
<ul>
<li>An initial I was written <img width="11" height="13" align="middle" alt="¨" src="illo/cadhuml.gif"> (<cite>transliterated as an umlaut</cite>), originally a supercripted Y <img width="15" height="13" alt="y" align="middle" src="illo/cadhy.gif">, so that GURIE 'lion' was written <img width="48" height="21" alt="GURË" align="absmiddle" src="illo/cadhgure.gif"> GURË, ATRABION 'emperor' as ATRABÖN, DIA 'that' as DÄ.
<li>And an initial U was written <img width="9" height="14" alt="^" align="absmiddle" src="illo/cadhcirc.gif"> (<cite>transliterated as a circumflex</cite>), originally a superscripted U <img width="12" height="11" alt="U" align="absmiddle" src="illo/cadhu.gif">, so that GUENTOS 'metal' was written <img width="68" height="19" alt="GÊNTOS" align="absmiddle" src="illo/cadhgentos.gif"> GÊNTOS, UIL 'old' as ÎL, CUOMOS 'wonder' as CÔMOS.
<li>Some writers also used the Cuêzi symbol <img width="7" height="13" alt="¯" align="absmiddle" src="illo/cadhmac.gif"> (<cite>normally transliterated as a macron, but here as an underline</cite>) to represent a doubled vowel, so that MIDRAA 'mother (acc.)' was written <img width="68" height="20" alt="MIDRĀ" align="absmiddle" src="illo/cadhmidra.gif"> MIDR<u>A</u>, and GIIT 'boys' as G<u>I</u>T.
</ul>
<p>These alterations were soon joined by many others, and confused by bad pronunciation, chaotic standards, and the laziness of scribes. They therefore belong more to the darkness of medievalism than to the classical era, and the student should be prepared to recognize them, but not to employ them.
<h3><a name="Punctuation">Punctuation</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The earliest punctuation mark, already found in the late classical period, was the <i>kešaš </i> <img width="15" height="6" alt="," align="middle" src="illo/cadhpause.gif">, which as its name implies, marks a stop or pause. It was originally used to mark any sort of a hiatus; later the end of a sentence was marked by doubling it <img width="17" height="7" alt="." align="middle" src="illo/cadhstop.gif">, the <i>bolyáše kešaš</i>.
<p>Our exclamation and interrogation marks <img width="11" height="16" alt="!" align="middle" src="illo/cadhexcl.gif"><img width="17" height="10" alt="?" align="middle" src="illo/cadhques.gif">, and similarly the apposition marks < > belong strictly to the Dark Years and were never used in classical Caďinor. Nonetheless the interrogation mark <img width="17" height="10" alt="?" align="middle" src="illo/cadhques.gif"> (<i>cues</i>) is used in modern editions of Caďinor works, because of the clarity it affords.
<h3><a name="sentence">The sentence</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
Here is a sentence in Caďinor:
<blockquote>
<img width="207" height="20" alt="MEĎOS PIDOR SNUCET." align="middle" src="illo/cadhsentence.gif">
<br>MEĎOS PIDOR SNUCET.
<br><i>Meď imure piram zië. </i>
<br>A son obeys his father.
</blockquote>
<p>What can we see about this sentence? First, some of the words <b>resemble our own</b>. MEĎOS is the original form of the word which in our language has worn down to <i>meď.</i> The same is true of PIDOR and <i>piro</i>. Many Verdurian words are similar to the Caďinor, and some are identical. No other language is as close to Caďinor as the speech of Verduria province.
<p>We have the word SNUCAN, but it means only to serve in the way of a <i>snug</i>á ['servant']. In Caďinor SNUCAN meant the same as <i>imuran</i> ['obey']. Very often the <b>meaning of a Verdurian word has been debased</b> from its Caďinor original. Your teacher will point these instances out to you; or you can consult a lexicon of Caďinor, which will define every word in terms of its Verdurian equivalent.
<p>If we used the word <i>snucan</i> in this context, we would say <i>snuce</i>. The Caďinor form is SNUCET, with an additional -<i>t</i>. In the Dark Years, people through laziness began to simplify the forms of words; but in learning Caďinor we must restore them to their <b>original purity</b>. Verdurian has not simplified words as much as its neighboring languages, Barakhinei and Ismaîn; and Sarroc to the east has worn them down even further.
<p>The <b>order of the words</b> is different: the verb, SNUCET, comes at the end. Good stylists in Verdurian still often place the verb at the end, because it is the most logical arrangement of the sentence. First we discuss the actors in the sentence, and then we discuss the action; moreover, the most important element of a sentence, its king as it were, is the verb, and in Caďinor this is put in the place of honor where it will remain strongest in the listener's mind: at the end.
<p>Finally we remark that the Verdurian word <i>zië</i> is absent. This is not because Caďinor does not possess the word, for it does (ZEHIE). But it is not strictly speaking necessary-- naturally we are speaking of the boy's own father-- and so Caďinor omits it. In this case we see a keynote of good Caďinor style, which is <b>brevity</b>.
<h3><a name="chain">The chain of being</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
Without the light of philosophy, we might assume that the world consists of "things" only. Imagine, however, what a world consisting only of "things" would be like! It would be static, because it would consist only of objects, without change or movement; and it would be undifferentiated, because everything was the same thing-- a "thing".
<p>Rather, philosophy teaches us that the world consists of six levels of being:<ul>
<li> qualities
<li> objects
<li> relations
<li> states
<li> actions
<li> manners</ul>
These are arranged in a scale of value. An object is greater than a mere quality, which cannot exist on its own. A relation is greater than the objects it relates, for it imposes structure and mutuality on the world. States are greater than mere relations, for they introduce the aspect of time. Actions bring change and movement, and are superior to all that came before, in the way that a living thing is superior to a dead one. And manners of action are the highest of all, for they alone bestow judgment and virtue, the highest facilities of mankind.
<p>In the same way, a child coming into the world first perceives qualities (such as <i>bright</i> or <i>yellow</i> or <i>painful</i> or <i>hungry</i>); then it recognizes persons and other objects; then it begins to understand the relations between them; then it understands their states and actions; and finally, as it matures, it learns to make judgments on the manner of their acting.
<p>The structure of Caďinor is that of the world:<ul>
<li> qualities are expressed by <b>adjectives</b>;
<li> objects are named by <b>nouns</b>;
<li> relations are given by <b>relative particles</b>;
<li> states are expressed by <b>static verbs</b>;
<li> actions are expressed by <b>dynamic verbs</b>;
<li> manners are expressed by <b>adverbs</b>.
<li> the ensemble, the world as a whole, corresponds to the <b>sentence</b>.</ul>
We will consider each of these in turn.
<h2><a name="Adjectives">Adjectives, or expressions of quality</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h2>
An adjective (<i>etalóg</i>) names a quality or property of a thing, such as ZOL (strong), FLAVES (yellow), ȞALTES (tall), MUSCES (many), or VIRNIS (loyal). As we have noted, these are the first perceptions of an infant, who senses that things are such a way even before it can attach these impressions to particular objects.
<p>An adjective does not stand on its own, but refers to a noun, either by direct modification (VIRNIS BELOR, a loyal friend) or by predication (BELOR VIRNIS ES, a friend is loyal).
<h3><a name="Gender">Gender</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
As the world is divided into things which are male, female, or neither, so is Caďinor. This is one way in which Verdurian has fallen from the initial purity of Caďinor; we have confounded the masculine and neuter genders. Ismaîn is a weaker language still, having lost gender entirely. Masculine, neuter, and feminine are called genders (<i>dinë</i> [= 'one third']), because each contains a third of the vocabulary and of the world.
<p>Thus, we say:
<blockquote>
PONOS ZOL ES. The warrior is strong. (<i>cer,</i> masculine)
<br>CALO ZOLO ES. The heat is strong. (<i>suy, </i>neuter)
<br>SAEA ZOLA ES. The woman is strong. (<i>ionile, </i>feminine)
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Number">Number</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
It is essential to know if we are referring to one object or many; thus adjectives and nouns indicate number (<i>dimo</i>). ZOL/ZOLA/ZOLO are singular forms; the plural forms are ZOLIT/ZOLET/ZOLOI.
<blockquote>
PONIT ZOLIT SONT. The warriors are strong. (masculine)
<br>CALOI ZOLOI SONT. The heats are strong. (neuter)
<br>SAEET ZOLET SONT. The women are strong. (feminine)
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Case">Case</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
As in Verdurian, an adjective takes distinct forms, according to the role its referent plays in the action. We customarily arrange these forms in a word-circle (<i>loglaun</i>):
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr><td colspan=2 align="center">ZOL
<tr><td>ZOL <td>ZOLEI
<tr><td>ZOLOŤ <td>ZOLAN
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The <b>top</b> side (<i>cot</i>) of the circle is of course its most perfect location, and here we place the <b>nominative</b> case (<i>etamizë cot</i>), which is the form of a thing in its highest state: either independent, or actively dominating other things.
<p>The <b>right</b> side of the circle is powerful, representing an object's strengths: the <b>genitive</b> (<i>tenec</i>) represents ownership or lordship, while the <b>dative</b> (<i>prenec</i>) is used when an object receives goods, or is the target of motion.
<p>The <b>left</b> side of the circle is weak; here we place the <b>accusative</b> (<i>opfëe</i>), which is used when the object suffers action at the hand of another, and the <b>ablative</b> (<i>sadas</i>) is used when an object loses goods, or is the source of motion.
<p>The more perfect a being, the more it resides on the right side of the circle. Thus the gods may see us or kill us, but we do not see them or kill them. When we do interact with them, we use the dative: we make sacrifices to them, we speak to them, we make entreaties to them.
<p>The <b>bottom</b> side of the circle, like the bottom of a wheel, implies <b>movement</b>. Movement <i>away from</i> the object requires the ablative; movement <i>toward</i> the object requires the dative.
<p>In Verdurian we have all of these cases except the ablative. Ismaîn has just three cases, while Barakhinei has four cases in the singular, but only three in the plural.
<h3><a name="first">The first declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
An adjective has thirty possible forms, representing the combination of gender, number, and case. Here are the full circles for the adjective ZOL:
<table><tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4><i>Singular</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Masculine</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Neuter</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Feminine</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ZOL</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ZOLO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ZOLA</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ZOL</td>
<td>ZOLEI</td>
<td>ZOLOM</td>
<td>ZOLOI</td>
<td>ZOLAA</td>
<td>ZOLAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ZOLOŤ</td>
<td>ZOLAN</td>
<td>ZOLOŤ</td>
<td>ZOLON</td>
<td>ZOLAD</td>
<td>ZOLAN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><td rowspan=4><i>Plural</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Masculine</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Neuter</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Feminine</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ZOLIT</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ZOLOI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ZOLET</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ZOLI</td>
<td>ZOLIE</td>
<td>ZOLOIM</td>
<td>ZOLOIE</td>
<td>ZOLEIM</td>
<td>ZOLEIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ZOLIŤ</td>
<td>ZOLIN</td>
<td>ZOLOIŤ</td>
<td>ZOLOIN</td>
<td>ZOLEID</td>
<td>ZOLEIN</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If you compare these forms to the Verdurian <i>zol</i>, you will see many similarities, but also differences. We do not have the neuter or ablative forms at all. The singular forms have not greatly changed, except that we write <i>zolán</i> instead of ZOLAN for the masculine dative; <i>zola</i> for ZOLAA and <i>zole</i> for ZOLAE in the feminine. You may find the neuter forms easier to learn if you think of Verdurian nouns ending in <i>-o</i>.
<p>Not all adjectives decline like ZOL; this is only the first of three adjectival declensions [lit., circles]. It is generally used for very basic qualities, such as UIL (old), AER (south), KAR (happy), SUL (alone), SAR<i> </i>(east), ZOL (strong), TEL (west), TIL<i> </i>(each), MAL (bad), NAN (north). Verdurian consonantal adjectives derive from this declension.
<h3><a name="second">The second declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The second declension contains most of the adjectives of Caďinor, such as ALETES 'high', BREVES 'short', GARESMES<i> </i>'sensible', SUESTES 'sixth', ZONRES 'yearly', ĎAHES 'correct', LARGES 'wide', MUSCES 'many'. Verdurian adjectives in <i>-e</i> or <i>-ë</i> derive from this declension.
<p>Here are the circles for ALETES:
<table><tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4><i>Singular</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Masculine</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Neuter</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Feminine</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ALETES</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ALETE</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ALETIES</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ALETE</td>
<td>ALETEI</td>
<td>ALETEM</td>
<td>ALETEI</td>
<td>ALETEA</td>
<td>ALETIAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ALETEŤ</td>
<td>ALETEN</td>
<td>ALETEŤ</td>
<td>ALETEN</td>
<td>ALETED</td>
<td>ALETEN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><td rowspan=4><i>Plural</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Masculine</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Neuter</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Feminine</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ALETEIT</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ALETEI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ALETET</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ALETEI</td>
<td>ALETEIE</td>
<td>ALETEIM</td>
<td>ALETEIE</td>
<td>ALETEIM</td>
<td>ALETEIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ALETEIŤ</td>
<td>ALETEIN</td>
<td>ALETEIŤ</td>
<td>ALETEIN</td>
<td>ALETEID</td>
<td>ALETEIN</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>For ease of memorization, note:<ul>
<li> All but one of the singular endings include an <i>-</i>E<i>-</i>; all but one of the plural endings include <i>-</i>EI<i>-</i>.
<li> All the dative forms, and all the plural genitives, are the same for all three genders.
<li> The ablative forms are the same for all three genders, except for the usual feminine -D in place of -Ť.</ul>
<h3><a name="third">The third declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The third declension contains a number of ordinary qualities such as ORIS 'round', ILIS 'shiny', GLINIS 'long', DOLIS 'hollow', SCEHIS 'every', TECNIS 'narrow', HAUPIS 'tight'; but it is largely used for adjectives derived from other words: ADCRENIS 'deeply felt' from CRENIS 'guts', CLECNIS 'miserly' from CLEȞ 'fist', DECTIS 'tenth', DITRIS 'innocent' from DITOS 'baby', BUNAIĎRIS 'godforsaken', RUȞRIS 'fast', ȞRABRIS 'courageous'. Verdurian adjectives in <i>-y</i> derive from this declension.
<p>Here are the circles for ILIS:
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4><i>Singular</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Masculine</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Neuter</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Feminine</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILIS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILIS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILIS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ILI</td>
<td>ILII</td>
<td>ILIM</td>
<td>ILII</td>
<td>ILIA</td>
<td>ILIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ILIŤ</td>
<td>ILIN</td>
<td>ILIŤ</td>
<td>ILIN</td>
<td>ILID</td>
<td>ILIN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><td rowspan=4><i>Plural</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Masculine</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Neuter</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Feminine</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILUIT</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILUI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILIAT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ILUI</td>
<td>ILUIE</td>
<td>ILUIM</td>
<td>ILUIE</td>
<td>ILIAM</td>
<td>ILIAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ILUIŤ</td>
<td>ILUIN</td>
<td>ILUIŤ</td>
<td>ILUIN</td>
<td>ILIAD</td>
<td>ILIAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3><a name="Memorizing">Memorizing the forms</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The best way to learn the forms is not to individually memorize each possible ending, of which there are ninety, but to learn the patterns.
<p>The basic pattern of the oblique (non-nominative) forms is ROOT + STEM + FINAL.
<ul><li> STEM indicates declension, gender, and number:
<blockquote>
<table><tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td></td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">1st declension</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">2nd declension</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">3rd declension</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0"> <td></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>f</td>
<td>m</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>f</td>
<td>m</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>f</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">sing.</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>O</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>E</td>
<td>I</td>
<td>I</td>
<td>I</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">pl.</td>
<td>I</td>
<td>OI</td>
<td>EI</td>
<td>EI</td>
<td>EI</td>
<td>EI</td>
<td>UI</td>
<td>UI</td>
<td>IA</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The 2nd and 3rd declensions have the same stem in all three genders in the singular, and this holds for the 2nd declension in the plural as well.
<p> The plural stem is, for each declension and gender, longer than the singular stem: one vowel where the singular stem is null, and two vowels where the singular has one. It is rational for greater sound to represent greater number. The plural stem always contains an I.<p>
<li> FINAL follows these rules:
<ul>
<li> Nominative: <br>-S in the singular (but, none in 1st declension) <br>-T in the plural (but, none in the neuter)
<li> Genitive: <br>-E in the feminine singular and in all plural forms <br>-I elsewhere (masculine and neuter singular)
<li> Accusative: <br>-M in the feminine plural and in all neuter forms <br>-A in the feminine singular<br>none, in the masculine
<li> Dative: <br>always -N
<li> Ablative: <br>-Ť in the masculine and neuter <br>-D in the feminine
</ul>
</ul>
<p>Note that the masculine accusative is usually shorter than the nominative; this is because to be acted upon diminishes a male, while to act enhances him.
<p>Here are the endings for all three declensions repeated, with exceptions <b>highlighted</b>.
<blockquote>
<table><tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td></td>
<td colspan=7 align="center">1st declension</td>
<td colspan=7 align="center">2nd declension</td>
<td colspan=7 align="center">3rd declension</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">n</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">f</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">n</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">f</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">n</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">f</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan=3 bgcolor="#A0DDA0">s.</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">-</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">o</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">a</td>
<td> </td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">es</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><b>e</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><b>ies</b></td>
<td> </td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">is</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">is</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">is</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>-</td>
<td><b>ei</b></td>
<td>om</td>
<td>oi</td>
<td>aa</td>
<td>ae</td>
<td>
<td>e</td>
<td>ei</td>
<td>em</td>
<td>ei</td>
<td>ea</td>
<td><b>iae</b></td>
<td>
<td>i</td>
<td>ii</td>
<td>im</td>
<td>ii</td>
<td>ia</td>
<td>ie</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>oť</b></td>
<td><b>an</b></td>
<td>oť</td>
<td>on</td>
<td>ad</td>
<td>an</td>
<td>
<td>eť</td>
<td>en</td>
<td>eť</td>
<td>en</td>
<td>ed</td>
<td>en</td>
<td>
<td>iť</td>
<td>in</td>
<td>iť</td>
<td>in</td>
<td>id</td>
<td>in</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">n</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">f</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">n</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">f</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">n</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">f</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan=3 bgcolor="#A0DDA0">pl.</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">it</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">oi</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">et</td>
<td></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">eit</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ei</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><b>et</b></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">uis</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ui</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">iat</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>i</td>
<td>ie</td>
<td>oim</td>
<td>oie</td>
<td>eim</td>
<td>eie</td>
<td>
<td>ei</td>
<td>eie</td>
<td>eim</td>
<td>eie</td>
<td>eim</td>
<td>eie</td>
<td>
<td>ui</td>
<td>uie</td>
<td>uim</td>
<td>uie</td>
<td>iam</td>
<td>iae</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>iť</td>
<td>in</td>
<td>oiť</td>
<td>oin</td>
<td>eid</td>
<td>ein</td>
<td>
<td>eiť</td>
<td>ein</td>
<td>eiť</td>
<td>ein</td>
<td>eid</td>
<td>ein</td>
<td>
<td>uiť</td>
<td>uin</td>
<td>uiť</td>
<td>uin</td>
<td>iad</td>
<td>ian</td></tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
The eight <b>highlighted</b> endings are the only exceptional forms. The 2nd declension neuter singular nominative has the right vowel, but lacks the expected -<i>S</i> final. The other irregularities all have the correct final, but an unexpected stem:<ul>
<li> In the masculine singular 1st declension, a vowel has been inserted in place of the null stem, for ease of pronunciation.
<li> The nom. and gen. have unusual stems in the 2nd declension feminine singular.
<li> The 1st and 2nd declension feminine plural nominatives have -<i>ET</i> for the expected -<i>EIT</i>.</ul>
We may also compare the Caďinor endings to those of our own language:
<blockquote>
<table><tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td></td>
<td colspan=5 align="center">1st declension</td>
<td colspan=5 align="center">2nd declension</td>
<td colspan=5 align="center">3rd declension</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">f</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">f</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">f</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan=3 bgcolor="#A0DDA0">s.</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">-</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">a</td>
<td> </td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="green">e</font></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="green">e</font></td>
<td> </td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="green">y</font></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="green">y</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>-</td>
<td>ei</td>
<td><font color="red">a</font></td>
<td><font color="red">e</font></td>
<td>
<td>e<font color="red">m</font></td>
<td>ei</td>
<td><font color="red">a</font></td>
<td>ei</td>
<td>
<td>i<font color="red">m</font></td>
<td>ii</td>
<td>ya</td>
<td>ye</td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>án</td>
<td></td>
<td>an</td>
<td>
<td></td>
<td>en</td>
<td></td>
<td>en</td>
<td>
<td></td>
<td>ín</td>
<td></td>
<td><font color="red">ya</font>n</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">f</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=3 align="center">f</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">m</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">f</td>
</tr>
<tr><td rowspan=3 bgcolor="#A0DDA0">pl.</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="red">î</font></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="red">î</font></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="red">î</font></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="red">î</font></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="red">î</font></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><font color="red">î</font></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>i</td>
<td>ië</td>
<td><font color="red">e</font>m</td>
<td><font color="red">i</font>ë</td>
<td>
<td>e<font color="red">m</font></td>
<td>eë</td>
<td><font color="red">e</font>m</td>
<td><font color="red">i</font>ë</td>
<td>
<td><font color="red">om</font></td>
<td>uë</td>
<td>y<font color="red">e</font>m</td>
<td>y<font color="red">ië</font></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>in</td>
<td></td>
<td><font color="red">e</font>n</td>
<td>
<td></td>
<td>ein</td>
<td></td>
<td><font color="red">e</font>n</td>
<td>
<td></td>
<td>uin</td>
<td></td>
<td><font color="red">ye</font>n</td></tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The forms in black are the same as in Caďinor, with some spelling changes (e.g. <i>eë</i> is the same as <i>EIE</i>, since we do not use <i>ë</i> in Caďinor).
<p>Unexpected vowels or consonants are shown in red. In several instances, <i>-m</i> has been generalized into accusatives which did not have it in Caďinor; in others, vowels have been simplified, or borrowed from another gender.
<p>Forms in green have lost the nominative -S. Most of these have the correct vowel, however.
<h3><a name="AdjectivesNouns">Adjectives and nouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
An adjective always refers to a noun, whether directly (PONOS ZOL) or predicatively (PONOS ZOL ES). The normal position of a adjective is after the noun it qualifies.
<p>As in Verdurian, an adjective matches its noun in number, gender, and case:
<blockquote>
NECET MUDRAIAT PIDOR MELI AMARIT.
<br><i>Mesî mudraî ontu lon dobren piron. </i>
<br>Wise daughters esteem a good father.
</blockquote>
<p>NECET and MUDRAIAT are both feminine plural nominatives; PIDOR and MELI are both masculine singular accusatives.
<h3><a name="Comparatives">Comparatives</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
To ascribe qualities to things is to perceive, which is a function of the understanding (<i>leria</i>); with the higher facility of the intellect (<i>razum</i>) we make judgments. Reflecting the importance of judgment, Caďinor has a separate comparative form for use in comparing one thing to another.
<p>The comparative (<i>valtec</i>) is formed as follows:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><td>Declension</td>
<td>m. nom. sing.</td>
<td>Comparative</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">1</td>
<td>ZOL</td>
<td>ZOLOR</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">2</td>
<td>ALETES</td>
<td>ALETEĎES</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">3</td>
<td>ILIS</td>
<td>ILIOR</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><td colspan=3>Exceptional forms</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">'good'</td>
<td>MELIS</td>
<td>MELIOR</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">'bad'</td>
<td>DURENGES</td>
<td>AVECOR</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The comparatives in <i>-</i>OR decline as 1st declension adjectives; those in -EĎES<i>,</i> as 2nd declension.
<p>Here are some sample comparative expressions:
<blockquote>
<font color="green">ATRABIONOŤ</font> <u>BOLGEĎES</u> ES <font color="blue">ATRABANTOS</font>.
<br>The Empire is larger than the Emperor.
<p><font color="blue">SCUSTILE VIRNIS</font> <u>MELIOR</u> <font color="green">ZONNIŤ GLINUIŤ DISCLAETECIE</font> ES.
<br>A loyal death is better than the long years of a traitor.
<p><font color="blue">ZONNIT GLINUIT DISCLAETECIE</font> <u>AVECORIT</u> <font color="green">SCUSTILED VIRNID</font> SONT.
<br>The long years of a traitor are worse than a loyal death.
<p><font color="green">KRASEID</font> <u>LUREĎEN</u> <font color="blue">KIRAN</font> MARETEIS.
<br>You will marry a wife more beautiful than roses.
</blockquote>
<p>In each of these we see that the comparative agrees in number, case, and gender with <font color="blue">the object which is superior</font> in that quality, and that <font color="green">the inferior object</font> is expressed in the ablative (one of the inferior left-hand-side cases). The two objects may be listed in any order.
<h3><a name="Superlatives">Superlatives</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
To compare is only the first step in judgment: the perfection of judgment is to state an absolute, to find the item which excels the most in its particular quality. This also is reflected in Caďinor, by means of the superlative (<i>perunec</i>).
<p>The superlative is formed as follows. It declines as a 2nd declension adjective.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><td>Declension</td>
<td>m. nom. sing.</td>
<td>Superlative</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">1</td>
<td>ZOL</td>
<td>ZOLASTES</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">2</td>
<td>ALETES</td>
<td>ALETASCES</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">3</td>
<td>ILIS</td>
<td>ILISCES</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0" colspan=3>Exceptional forms</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">'good'</td>
<td>MELIS</td>
<td>MELASTES</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#A0DDA0">'bad'</td>
<td>DURENGES</td>
<td>AVESTES</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>Here are some sample sentences featuring superlatives:
<blockquote>
<font color="blue">ELORION</font> <u>BERACRASCES</u> <font color="green">URESTUIE</font> ES.
<br>The king is the most glorious of men.
<p><font color="blue">GINET ESTALDEI</font> <u>LURASCET</u> ALAMEIAD SONT.
<br>The women of the Plain are the most beautiful on Almea.
<p><u>TISISCEM</u> <font color="blue">GLABROM</font> TENI.
<br>I will have the sharpest sword.
</blockquote>
<p>The superlative agrees with <font color="blue">the object deemed most superior</font> in number, case, and gender. The <font color="green">class from which the comparison is drawn</font> (e.g. 'of men' in the first example) is placed in the genitive plural (not the ablative, because it is no vice for something simply not to hold the very first rank).
<p>Weak writers give in to the temptation to claim first rank for what is merely superior. Do not call a man MUDRAISCES ('most wise') if he is merely very wise, but only if he is truly the wisest of those he is compared to.
<h3><a name="fromverbs">Adjectives from verbs</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
From every verb, three <b>participles</b> (<i>mevdonecî</i>) may be formed. They are declined as regular adjectives.<ul>
<li> The <b>present</b> or <b>nominative</b> participle (<i>mevdonec etamizë</i>) is used to describe persons or objects which perform an action; for instance, MIDRA NURICA, a nurturing mother; VIRAȞ RIDIC, a smiling enemy.</ul>
<p>For verbs in -EC add -<b>ILES</b>; for verbs in -IR add -<b>IC</b>; otherwise -<b>EC</b>. <ul>
<li> The <b>past </b>or<b> accusative </b>participle (<i>mevdonec opfëe</i>) is used to describe persons or objects which are acted upon; for instance, ȞMATUL CLAGEL, a flogged prisoner; COLEPIOS KIPUL, boiled fish.</ul>
<p>For verbs in -EC or -ER, add -<b>EL</b>; otherwise -<b>UL</b>.<ul>
<li> The <b>gerund</b>, or <b>participle of need</b> (<i>mevdonec silorei</i>), is used to describe things which must be done: TROHAUM, that which must be found; SKADIM, that which must be paid.</ul>
<p>For verbs in -EC or -ER, add -<b>IM</b>; otherwise -<b>AUM</b>.
<h2><a name="Nouns">Nouns, or names of things</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h2>
<h3><a name="Types">Types of nouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
In ordinary language, a name (<i>nom</i>) refers directly to a person, such as <i>Albes</i> or <i>Londrot</i>. In grammar, however, these are only one of the types of nouns:<ul>
<li> names of persons or gods (<i>nomî ctelei</i>)
<li> names of families (<i>ženatî</i>)
<li> names of places (<i>nomî čelei</i>)
<li> names of singular objects which do not form a class, such as <i>Almea, Ënomai, nature, paradise,</i> the <i>Aďivro</i>, the <i>Cemisa</i> temple (<i>nomî anisei</i>)
<li> names of classes of things (<i>nomî kestei</i>)-- concrete things like <i>rabbit</i> or <i>king</i>, as well as abstract things like <i>fear</i> or <i>mistake</i></ul>
<ul>
<li> names of actions (<i>nomî mevei</i>), such as <i>departure</i> or <i>dance</i>
<li> trustee nouns (<i>nomî promevecî</i>)-- short words of vague meaning, such as <i>he</i> or <i>this one</i> (<i>tot</i>), that stand in for other nouns when we are short of time</ul>
<h3><a name="NGender">Gender</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
<IMG width="387" height="304" Align=right SRC="illo/cadhgirls.jpg" alt="[Fresco of girls playing, ZE 1705]" title="Fresco of girls playing, ZE 1705">
In Verdurian, there are <b>masculine</b> (<i>cer</i>) and <b>feminine</b> (<i>ionile</i>) nouns, and this seems to us an obvious division of the world. Can something be male <i>and</i> female? We know that it cannot.
<p>Yet here Caďinor shows its greater perfection and logic, for of course something can be neither male nor female-- it can be <b>neither</b> (<i>suy</i>). This is why we call gender <i>dinë</i>, or one-third, because each of the three genders of Caďinor covers one third of the possible gender states.
<p>When it comes to human beings or to the higher animals, the Caďinor word of course matches the object in gender. Many inhuman objects are also, as one would expect, neuter.
<blockquote>
<table><tr><td>Masculine</td>
<td>Feminine</td>
<td>Neuter</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td>PONOS strong man, warrior
<br>ELORION king
<br>AIĎOS god</td>
<td>SAEA woman
<br>ELOREIS queen
<br>AIĎA goddess</td>
<td>URESTU human being
<br>DASCO animal</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td>PIDOR father
<br>MEĎOS son</td>
<td>MIDRA mother
<br>NECA daugher</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td>FORIDEC stallion
<br>BOUNOS bull
<br>VERAŤOS boar
<br>KRESOS male dog</td>
<td>IUMENTA mare
<br>BOUNA cow
<br>TROIA sow
<br>BAETERA female dog</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>Many words have a gender one might not expect. However, on reflection, the Caďinor gender will always be seen to reflect the inner nature of the object.<ul>
<li> Most <b>tools</b> are female, because they are used by the male (BELACA long sword, CASSIS helmet, CRUVA shield, ESPUILA spear, STRELIS arrow, TAECA hammer, SPICA nail, BILETA stylus, MIHIA straightedge, KAENA flute, MURINA boat). <p>
<li> Items which are not used directly, but are part of another tool, are however male: the bow (ARCOS) is associated with arrows, the lock (BAEROS) with doors, the oar (REMOS) with boats.<p>
<li> Things associated with <b>women</b> are female, such as the breast (LIMURA), milk (LEMMA), womb (ALBRA), the cooking pot (TUANA), the bed (NUBRA), the jewel (IOHILA).<p>
<li> The <b>metals</b> used for coins or weaponry are male, because of the power they bring (ARGENTOS silver, OȞ gold, HAEMUR emur; CELONDOS bronze, LAITONDOS brass, KOL iron). <b>Gems</b>, because of their beauty, are female (ILONTIS quartz, DAŤUSIA jade, RIMIDE emerald, GLABRILE diamond, BEREOLE malachite); consider also the beautiful metal ELEINAMIEI, platinum.<p>
<li> Among <b>parts of the body</b>, the lip (LEBRE) is chiefly an adornment to the face, so it is female; the mouth, nose, and ear (BUSCOS, OLVOS, OHEL) are utilitarian, and thus male; the eye (HIE) is the organ of reflection, which is female. The hand (MANUS) is important for the work of both sexes, and is thus neuter; compare the male fist (CLEȞ). We focus on the female attractiveness of the foot (NAGA), hip (HANCA) stomach (VENERA), and chest (ȞRUDIS), the male usefulness of the leg (CRUROS), arm (BAREȞ), and buttocks (KADOS). <p>
<li> Where an <b>animal</b> has a single name for both sexes, it reflects the underlying nature of the animal. Small or timid animals like the mouse (SURIS), lamb (ARINIS), or turtle (TRENA) are female; beautiful animals such as the swan (CUGNA) also. Large or fierce animals like the dragon (DRACOR) and bear (URSOS) are male; there are also animals that suggest no particular sex, such as beavers (MARSIO) or salmon (NOŤONIS).
<p>Where the gender seems 'wrong', there is often a secret of nature which the language wishes to teach us. Why is the lion, that fierce predator, female (GURIE)? In fact it is the female lion, not the male, that hunts!
<p> Note that the special body parts of animals are tools to them, and therefore female (IUBA mane, CENNA beak, UNGE claw, PINNA fin, TUESCA shell). An exception is the horn (ROGOS) and tail (KUEȞOS), whose shape makes them unavoidably male.
<p> The noxious small animals are male (CUTIL tick, IENEVOS worm, LISMOS slug, RAIȞ crab); those known for their hard labor or for their beauty are female (FORMICA ant, MELIE bee, ARACNIS spider, MOLGA moth).<p>
<li> Names of <b>actions and qualities</b> are normally female, because abstraction takes us away from the direct nature of things and into reflection, which is to say, from the male outer world to the female inner world. <p>
<li> Among <b>natural things</b>, a river (CELERE) is female, because it shares the inconstancy of women as well as their soft and refreshing nature; likewise lakes (AETANIS) and the sea (ZIEIS); the sky (CILEL) is male, because it fertilizes the earth with rain; for the same reason fields (MESTIS), estates (KESUILE), and the Earth itself (ALAMEIA) are female. Rain, because it mediates this process, is neuter (NOU); snow, because it adorns, is female (NEICTE).<p>
<li> The <b>edible plants</b> are typically neuter (GRILU wheat, BRASCO flour, SEGLIS rye, SCOHU cabbage, PORRO green onion, CAEBOLO onion, CITRO lemon), except for small distinct round ones, which are male (GRIBOS mushroom, HELGAIOS olive, GRAIȞ chickpea, PRECOS peach, BEMBOS gourd, TONOS rice). Wood however is female (ENDIS), and so therefore are plants with a woody surface: DINGA melon, CASTANA chestnut, CONOPLIA hemp.<p>
<li> The parts of a <b>house</b> (DOMOS) are male: ATONNOS room, ĎER door, POL floor, BARUK balcony.</ul>
Almost always, when a Verdurian word descends from the Caďinor, the gender is the same. In just a few instances we have erroneously changed the
gender, such as the flower NUELEN, now <i>nölne</i>; FRAGAS strawberry, now <i>fraga</i>; PEOS peace, now <i>pé</i>; KLESCA clash, now <i>kleš</i>; SCAGANTOS emptiness, now <i>šagati</i> in the sense of pudendum.
<h3><a name="wordcircles">The word-circles of nouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
There are three declensions (<i>loglaunî</i>) of <b>masculine</b> nouns:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4 bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><i>Singular</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>First</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Second</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Third</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">OȞ</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AIĎOS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AESTAS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>OȞ</td>
<td>OȞEI</td>
<td>AIĎ</td>
<td>AIĎEI</td>
<td>AESTA</td>
<td>AESTAI</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>OȞOŤ</td>
<td>OȞAN</td>
<td>AIĎOŤ</td>
<td>AIĎAN</td>
<td>AESTAŤ</td>
<td>AESTAN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4 bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><i>Plural</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>First</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Second</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Third</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">OȞIT</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AIĎIT</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AESTAIT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>OȞI</td>
<td>OȞIE</td>
<td>AIĎI</td>
<td>AIĎIE</td>
<td>AESTAI</td>
<td>AESTAIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>OȞIŤ</td>
<td>OȞIN</td>
<td>AIĎIŤ</td>
<td>AIĎIN</td>
<td>AESTAIŤ</td>
<td>AESTAIN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li> The <b>first</b> declension is identical to the <i>masculine</i> forms of 1st declension adjectives like ZOL.
<li> The <b>second</b> declension has the same endings as the first, in all but the singular nominative -OS.
<li> The <b>third</b> declension follows the same root + stem + final pattern as the masculine adjectives, with stems A (singular) and AI (plural).</ul>
There are four declensions of <b>neuter</b> nouns:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4 bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><i>Singular</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>First</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Second</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Third</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Fourth</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CITRO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">URESTU</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FUELIS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">MANUS</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CITROM</td>
<td>CITROI</td>
<td>URESTUM</td>
<td>URESTUI</td>
<td>FUELIM</td>
<td>FUELII</td>
<td>MANO</td>
<td>MANOI</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CITROŤ</td>
<td>CITRON</td>
<td>URESTUŤ</td>
<td>URESTUN</td>
<td>FUELIŤ</td>
<td>FUELIN</td>
<td>MANUŤ</td>
<td>MANUN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4 bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><i>Plural</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>First</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Second</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Third</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Fourth</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CITROI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">URESTUI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FUELUI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">MANUIT</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CITROIM</td>
<td>CITROIE</td>
<td>URESTUIM</td>
<td>URESTUIE</td>
<td>FUELUIM</td>
<td>FUELUIE</td>
<td>MANUI</td>
<td>MANUIE</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CITROIŤ</td>
<td>CITROIN</td>
<td>URESTUIŤ</td>
<td>URESTUIN</td>
<td>FUELUIŤ</td>
<td>FUELUIN</td>
<td>MANUIŤ</td>
<td>MANUIN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li> The <b>first</b> declension is identical to the <i>neuter</i> forms of 1st declension adjectives like ZOL.
<li> The <b>second</b> declension follows the standard root + stem + final pattern, with stems U (singular) and UI (plural).
<li> The <b>third</b> declension is identical to the neuter forms of 3rd declension adjectives like ILIS.
<li> The <b>fourth</b> declension is used mostly for useful objects (NIRUS 'machine', SILIRUS 'wheel', MANUS 'hand', FORIUS 'fetrtilizer') or sacred ones (CLAETUS 'oath', COMUS 'Lake Como', VACUS 'shrine'). It is mixed in form; to it belong neutral things with a strong masculine flavor.
<p>Accordingly they decline according to <i>masculine</i> models, with stems U and UI (except that -U- changes to -O- in the middle slice of the circle).</ul>
<p>There are three declensions of <b>feminine</b> nouns:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4 bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><i>Singular</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>First</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Second</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Third</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AIĎA</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">UNGE</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">SURIS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AIĎAA</td>
<td>AIĎAE</td>
<td>UNGEA</td>
<td>UNGEI</td>
<td>SURIA</td>
<td>SURIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AIĎAD</td>
<td>AIĎAN</td>
<td>UNGED</td>
<td>UNGEN</td>
<td>SURID</td>
<td>SURIN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td rowspan=4 bgcolor="#A0DDA0"><i>Plural</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>First</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Second</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Third</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AIĎET</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">UNGET</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">SURIAT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AIĎEIM</td>
<td>AIĎEIE</td>
<td>UNGEIM</td>
<td>UNGEIE</td>
<td>SURIAM</td>
<td>SURIAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AIĎEID</td>
<td>AIĎEIN</td>
<td>UNGEID</td>
<td>UNGEIN</td>
<td>SURIAD</td>
<td>SURIAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li> The <b>first</b> declension is identical to the <i>feminine</i> forms of 1st declension adjectives like ZOL.
<li> The <b>second</b> declension is identical to the first, in the <i>plural</i>. In the <i>singular</i> it follows the same pattern as the first, with stem vowel E in place of A; except that the genitive is UNGEI rather than UNGEE.
<li> The <b>third</b> declension is identical to the neuter forms of 3rd declension adjectives like ILIS.</ul>
<h3><a name="CaseUsage">Case usage</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
In general Verdurian uses cases in the correct way: <ul>
<li> the <b>nominative</b> for subjects (<u>TIPEL</u> LAPRAE, the horse ran) and for predicating (TIPEL <u>DASCO</u> ES, the horse is an animal)
<li> the <b>genitive</b> for possessors (FORNO <u>TIPELEI</u>, the horse's hay), composition (TIENNA <u>FORNOI</u>, a meal of hay), and partiality (TIPEL <u>FORNOI</u> SCUTAE, the horse ate some hay)
<li> the <b>accusative</b> for what is acted upon (PONOS <u>TIPEL</u> SCADRAE, the warrior rode the horse)
<li> the <b>dative</b> for the beneficiary of an action (FORNOM <u>TIPELAN</u> DIO, I gave hay to the horse), the object of a movement (<u>TIPELILEN</u> LAUDAE, it went to the stable), or the superior in a relationship (MASCION <u>TIPELAN</u>, the horse's master)</ul>
However, Verdurian has lost the ablative, and this has destroyed the perfection and symmetry of our
case system, leaving us ignorant of the true relationship of the cases. The dative is an isolated and piteous thing, without its twin and peer, the ablative; and unaware of this relationship, how can we understand the similar pairing of accusative and genitive?
<p>The <b>ablative</b> is used for the one who gives away (PONOS BELACAA TENES <u>VIRAȞOŤ</u>, the warrior has the sword from an enemy), for the source of action (<u>TIPELILED</u> CTANAE, it came from the stable), or for a person's status, role, or origin (PONOS <u>MASCIONOŤ,</u> the warrior as master; TIPEL <u>PARENEID</u>, a horse from the mountains).
<p>The last usage is of course unfamiliar to us; the following examples should then be studied. The last two examples use the remote tense, to be discussed below. This implies futurity or potentiality, and it will be seen that constructions of this sort replace our own expressions using the word 'if'.
<blockquote>
<p>SUMERIC PROBRECOŤ, CAĎINOR SCRIFIM.
<br>With the teacher as our guide, we learn Caďinor.
<p>AERIVILEAS ATRABIONOŤ, CRETEIT ESAM.
<br>With Ervëa as our emperor, we are happy.
<p>AERIVILEAS ATRABIONOŤ, VIOCTEIM VENCETUM.
<br>With Ervëa as our emperor, we will defeat the demons.
<p>KIRA MASCEID, AIĎOTAUBREL SUBREMET.
<br>If the wife is master, ruin will follow.
</blockquote>
<p>We are used to express <b>geographic origin</b> using the genitive (<i>uestu erei</i>, a man of the south); but this is the proper role of the ablative, which represents origins; in Caďinor we write URESTU AEROŤ.
<p>We are also used to <b>expressions of time</b> using the dative alone: <i>nochín</i> 'at night'. The proper expression, even in Verdurian, is <i>de nochín</i>, and this is the only correct expression in Caďinor: DE NOCTUN. In all time expressions, the preposition must be explicitly expressed.
<p>When <b>noun usurps a verb's role</b> in representing action, the subject is expressed by the genitive and the object acted upon by the dative. Thus ELORION MACTANAA VENCAE, the king conquered the city, but VENCEIO ELORIONEI MACTANAN, the king's conquest of the city.
<blockquote><cite>The treatment of possession will be clear to the Verdurian reader but not, perhaps, to us. To the (imperial) Caďinorians the genitive implied possession, and thus superiority. Thus you can write TIPEL SANNOI 'the lord's horse', but it would be insulting to write SANNO GIEI 'the boy's lord', as if the lord belonged to the boy. You must write SANNO GION, 'lord to the boy'.
</cite></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Trustee">Trustee nouns [Pronouns]</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
Trustee nouns (<i>nomî promevecî</i>) are nouns of vague meaning, which for the sake of brevity can substitute for more precise nouns, or entire expressions.
<p>The simplest of these are those that refer to the speaker (SEO); to a group including the speaker (TAS), to the listener (LET), to a group including the listener (MUȞ), or to another party (singular TU, plural CAI).
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'I'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'thou'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'he/she'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">SEO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">LET </td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">TU</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>EŤ</td>
<td>EAE</td>
<td>EK</td>
<td>LEAE</td>
<td>TUA</td>
<td>TUAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ED</td>
<td>SEON</td>
<td>LEŤ</td>
<td>LUN</td>
<td>TOŤ</td>
<td>TUN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'we'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'you'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'they'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">TAS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">MUȞ</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CAI</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>TAIM</td>
<td>TAIE</td>
<td>MUIM</td>
<td>MUIE</td>
<td>CAIM</td>
<td>CAIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>TAD</td>
<td>TAUN</td>
<td>MUOŤ</td>
<td>MUIN</td>
<td>CAIŤ</td>
<td>CAIN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
The similarity to our own trustee nouns will be evident, except for <i>tu</i>, which for us refers only to an indefinite person, a definite person being referenced with <i>il</i> 'he' or <i>ila </i>'she'. Caďinor is more logical in this area, for if we do not distinguish between the genders in the plural (<i>ca</i>), why should we do so in the singular?
<p>The genitive forms are not used for direct possession; rather, we use the possessive adjectives ERIS my, TANDES our, LERIS thy, MUNDES your, TURIS his or her, CAIRIS their. These adjectives offer more clarity, since they are declined to match the noun they refer to: for example, in BELACA LERIA VULU 'I want your sword', LERIS is accusative and feminine.
<p>Like Verdurian, Caďinor has a reflexive pronoun, used when the subject of the action is also its object. This pronoun has no nominative form.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>singular</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>plural</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ZEŤ</td>
<td>ZEHIE</td>
<td>ZAHAM</td>
<td>ZAHIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ZEHOŤ</td>
<td>ZEHUN</td>
<td>ZAHAŤ</td>
<td>ZAHAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
As in Verdurian, it is not necessary to supply a pronoun when the person is clearly indicated by the verb, unless emphasis is desired: SEO ANELLOM PRENEMAI, I myself will take the ring.
<blockquote><cite>Again, Verdurian readers need little explanation of the reflexive. The sticking point for English speakers is likely to be the genitive: we can say "The king praised his name," where the king may be praising his own name or that of another. In Caďinor we distinguish ELORION NOM ZEHIE EGLERAE 'the king praised his own name' from ELORION NOM TUAE EGLERAE 'the king praised his (someone else's) name.'
</cite></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Pointers">Pointers </a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
A particular class of trustee nouns are those which are used to indicate (<i>kazec</i>) which of a class of objects we are referring to; they are thus called <i>kansilî</i>, pointers. There are two sets of pointers, those indicating a near object, and those indicating a far one.
<p>The following pointers are used in conjunction with a noun, and thus behave like adjectives, as in AELU LOGOS 'this word', ILLAE SAEAE 'of that woman', AELON SANNON 'to that lord'.
Our equivalents are invariable prefixes, <i>ci-</i> ['this'] and <i>ce-</i> ['that'], so you must remember to decline the Caďinor words.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=6 align="center"><i>Near ('this')</i></td>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Masculine</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Neuter</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Feminine</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AELU</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AELO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AELA</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AELEŤ</td>
<td>AELUI</td>
<td>AELOR</td>
<td>AELOI</td>
<td>AELEA</td>
<td>AELAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AELOŤ</td>
<td>AELUN</td>
<td>AELOŤ</td>
<td>AELON</td>
<td>AELAD</td>
<td>AELAN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=6 align="center"><i>Far ('that')</i></td>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Masculine</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Neuter</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Feminine</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILLU</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILLO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ILLA</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ILLEŤ</td>
<td>ILLUI</td>
<td>ILLO</td>
<td>ILLOI</td>
<td>ILLEA</td>
<td>ILLAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ILLOŤ</td>
<td>ILLUN</td>
<td>ILLOŤ</td>
<td>ILLON</td>
<td>ILLAD</td>
<td>ILLAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The words AETTOS and TOTOS are used in place of a more specific noun: AETTOT VULU 'I want this one'; TOT LEILINES 'Did you see that one?' They are regular masculine nouns, since they refer to SCOSOS 'thing', which is masculine.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Near ('this one')</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Far ('that one')</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AETTOS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">TOTOS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AETTOT</td>
<td>AETTEI</td>
<td>TOT</td>
<td>TOTEI</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AETTOŤ</td>
<td>AETTAN</td>
<td>TOTOŤ</td>
<td>TOTAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>In late Caďinor, ILLU / ILLO / ILLA are used alone, referring to a previously mentioned person or object. The classical grammarians rightly condemn this practice as a barbarism, pointing out that if no noun is present, only AETTOS or TOTOS is correct. However, when learning was lost or ignored, during the Dark Years, this barbarism spread, and it is the reason we say <i>ilu</i> and <i>ila</i> today. The Barakhinei are more correct in this one regard, since they use continue to use derivatives of AETTOS and TOTOS. Sometimes we find that the classical virtues persist in backward lands when they have been lost in more sophisticated realms.
<p>Another late Caďinor practice we must deprecate is the use of SOH 'aforementioned' in the sense of our <i>so</i>, as a <b>definite article</b>. We are so used to our article that, reading such late, corrupted authors, many a student is aware of nothing wrong and imitates the bad usage. It does take some time to get used to the correct classical usage, where ELORION may mean 'king', 'a king', or 'the king'. In most cases there is no need for the distinction we make. Where there is, Caďinor expresses it by sentence order (previous referents come first in the sentence) or through the remote mood (used among other purposes to make a description indefinite).
<p>The words AECTA and CESTA refer to <b>locations</b>. They are regular feminine nouns, since they refer to NAURE 'place', which is feminine.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Near ('here')</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>Far ('there)</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">AECTA</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CESTA</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AECTAA</td>
<td>AECTAE</td>
<td>CESTAA</td>
<td>CESTAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AECTAD</td>
<td>AECTAN</td>
<td>CESTAD</td>
<td>CESTAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>Finally we will mention the pointers relating to <b>time</b>, NUNC 'now' and ANCE 'then'.
<h3><a name="Question">Question words </a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
Clearly, if we do not know one of the actors in a situation, we cannot refer to it with their proper description; we must use a trustee noun. For questions we use a special class of trustee nouns, the interrogatives (<i>curesecî</i>).
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'who' (sing.)</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'what'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'where'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KAE</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KETTOS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEDIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>KAEŤ</td>
<td>KAIE</td>
<td>KETTOT</td>
<td>KETTEI</td>
<td>KEDIA</td>
<td>KEDIEI</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>KAEŤ</td>
<td>KAEN</td>
<td>KETTOŤ</td>
<td>KETTAN</td>
<td>KEDID</td>
<td>KEDIEN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'who' (pl.)</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KAHE</td>
<tr>
<td>KAHAM</td>
<td>KAHIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>KAHAŤ</td>
<td>KAHAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>We use KAE when we are asking about the involvement of a person; KETTOS about the involvement of a thing. Only KAE has plural forms. These declensions follow neuter patterns, since they can refer to persons or things of any gender.
<p>KEDIE asks about location; like AECTA/CESTA, its declension is essentially feminine.
<p>The other question words are KET 'which' (used with a following noun), KEDA 'when', KENSA 'how', and SCOLI 'how much'.
<p>The question words are normally placed <b>first</b> in the sentence:
<blockquote>
<u>KAEŤ</u> ELORION EGLERU?
<br>Whom did the king praise?
<p> <u>KETTOT</u> IM MISCUN NACITEIS?
<br>What are you carrying in the bag?
<p> <u>KEDIEN</u> KIRA ERIS LAUDAE?
<br>Where did my wife go?
<p> <u>SCOLI</u> SONT MORUŤIT?
<br>How much are the carrots?
</blockquote>
<p>Question words are also used to form <b>descriptive phrases</b>: ELORION <u>KAE AIĎI CALPIT</u>, a king who reveres the gods; MACTANA <u>KEDIE BELOR ERIS LACET</u>, the city where my friend lives.
<p>Such phrases may occur without a main verb; this is rare in Verdurian.
<blockquote>
<u>KAHAM MONNINSONT</u> AIĎIT BENGIT.
<br>(Those) who work hard, the gods bless.
<p> <u>KEDIEN AȞGAETILE SUBRAN BUEPES</u> LAUDAI.
<br>I am going where revenge cannot follow.
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Quantity">Quantity words</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The final category of trustee nouns is used when we want to emphasize the quantity or percentage of persons or objects were involved in an action. Since we are interested in how many (SCOLI), these words are called <i>scolisecî</i>.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'no one'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'someone'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'everyone'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NIKTOS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NIES</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PSIAT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NIKTOT</td>
<td>NIKTEI</td>
<td>NIET</td>
<td>NIEI</td>
<td>PSIAT</td>
<td>PSIE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NIKTOŤ</td>
<td>NIKTAN</td>
<td>NIEŤ</td>
<td>NIEN</td>
<td>PSIAD</td>
<td>PSIAN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'nothing'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'something'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'everything'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NISIOS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ŤISIOS</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PSIES</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NISIOT</td>
<td>NISIEI</td>
<td>ŤISIOT</td>
<td>ŤISIEI</td>
<td>PSIET</td>
<td>PSIEI</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NISIOŤ</td>
<td>NISIAN</td>
<td>ŤISIOŤ</td>
<td>ŤISIAN</td>
<td>PSIEŤ</td>
<td>PSIEN</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'nowhere'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'somewhere'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>'everywhere'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NIKUDA</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ŤIKEDIE</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PSUDA</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NIKUDAA</td>
<td>NIKUDAE</td>
<td>ŤIKEDIA</td>
<td>ŤIKEDIEI</td>
<td>PSUDAA</td>
<td>PSUDAE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>NIKUDAD</td>
<td>NIKUDAN</td>
<td>ŤIKEDID</td>
<td>ŤIKEDIEN</td>
<td>PSUDAD</td>
<td>PSUDAN</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
Words relating to time: NIKEDA 'never', ŤIKEDA 'sometimes', PSIEKEDA 'always'.
<p>The word-circles of NIKTOS, NISIOS, ŤISIOS follow the same pattern as AETTOS. NIKUDA and PSUDA are regular feminine nouns. ŤIKEDIE follows KEDIE. NIES and PSIES are like masculine adjectives in -ES, except that the accusative ends in -ET. Only PSIAT has a distinctive circle of its own.
<p>SCEHIS 'every' and SUIS 'not any' are regular adjectives, unlike our invariant prefixes <i>shi-</i> and <i>rho</i>. Thus they must be declined by case, number, and gender: SCEHIN URESTUN to every man; MALNEICA SUIAE LENKEIE a sickness of no remedies.
<h2><a name="Relativizers,">Relativizers, or expressions of relation </a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h2>
To refer to one thing is less noble than to compare two things, to indicate their mutual relations. The type of word which does this is called a <i>raspuyec, </i>because it enables one word to lean against [<i>ras-puye</i>] another.
<h3><a name="Numbers">Numbers</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The simplest relation of objects is to belong to a group of their own kind, graded by number (<i>hicet</i>). The ten basic numbers of Caďinor match the number of fingers on the two hands.
<blockquote><b>AN ĎUN ĎIN PAHOR PANŤ SUEST ȞAEP IOCI NEBRI DECT</b></blockquote>
<img width="185" height="263" alt="[Enäron (Caď. Endauron) vanquishing a ktuvok. 6C bas-relief, Enocur]" align=right src="enaron.jpg">
<p><b>AN</b> is one or unity, the individual. A thing which is one is sovereign, whole; and yet it may be considered defective, alone, because the things of the universe belong together in groups. A man who is one, without wife or lord, is a pitiable thing. As a quantity, one is the minutest; yet in order or hierarchy, one is the highest, and the first of any series, PERUES, is the noblest. There is one chief god, Enäron, who is the equal of all the rest.
<p><b>ĎUN</b> is two or a pair. Two is the minimum number to form a community-- or a division. There are two forms of virtue, individual holiness (<i>seorát</i>) and social harmony (<i>elut</i>). The day is divided in two, day and night; the earth is divided into land and sea. A man and a woman together make two, and our own bodies are divided into twos: eyes, ears, arms, breasts, buttocks, testicles, legs, and feet. The next in order after the first is PTORES, the second. A division into two forms METUIS, one half.
<p><b>ĎIN</b> is three or a trinity. There are three Fates (<i>gaieî</i>) which determine our lives; in the Cuzeian religion, three gods. There are three moons, and three Ages of Almea. There are three genders of nouns (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Its order is TMERES, the third. A division into three forms DIMAGAU, one third.
<p><b>PAHOR</b> is four. Four is a divine number, the number of the seasons, the directions, the ages of the body , and the parts of the soul. Because of this, it and the smaller numbers are declined as adjectives; the higher numbers are invariable. Students must remember to write PAHORET GINET 'four maidens', although in Verdurian we write <i>par zhinî</i>. Animals have four legs, while we have four toes on each foot, and four fingers on each hand excluding the thumb. There were four peoples in ancient times: the Caďinorians to the south; the Cuzeians to the west; the Monkhayu to the north; and the demon worshippers to the east. The order of four is TIETNES, the fourth. A division into four forms BARGAU, a quarter.
<p><b>PANŤ</b> is five. It is the number of digits on our hands, the number of cases in the noun, and the number of years in a <i>kasten</i> (leap year) cycle. Its order is PANTES.
<p><b>SUEST</b> is six. There are six levels of being, six senses, six parts of speech, six forms for each circle of a verb, Six Sentences of commandment, six colors in the spectrum, and six hours in each of the day's quarters. The Cuzeian week was six days long. Its order is SUESTES.
<p><b>ȞAEP</b> is seven. It is another sacred number: there are seven elements (<i>ftaconî</i>) in the physical world, seven temperaments in the spiritual world, seven Thinking Kinds, seven planets, seven days in a week. Its order is ȞAEPES.
<p><b>IOCI</b> is eight. There are eight forms of verbal art: <i>pomäe</i> (chronicle), <i>racont</i> (story), <i>šant</i> (song), <i>cevai</i> (chant), <i>ralinë</i> (play), <i>kallogi</i> (speech), <i>onemu</i> (treatise), and <i>curayora</i> (argument). In Caďinorian society there were eight ranks of men (emperor, prince, governor, prefect, count, headman, citizen, and slave). There are similarly eight ranks in the old religion (patriarch, primate, high curate, curate, vicar, priest, acolyte, and layman). Its order is IOCRIS.
<p><b>NEBRI</b> is nine. It is a sinister number, since it is one less than ten, a full number; it is the number of defect and of deception. There were nine conspirators in the Red Cabal. Its order is NEBRIS.
<p><b>DECT</b> is ten. It is the basis of numeration and arithmetic, and the number of digits on both hands, making a full man. There are ten <i>meguî</i> in an hour. Its order is DECTIS.
<p>[<b>11 - 19</b>] The next numbers are formed by adding DECT to the number minus ten. The most important of these are DECT ER ĎUN 'twelve', as there are twelve gods, twelve months in the year, and twelve forms of a noun; and DECT ER IOCI 'eighteen', the number of digits on a man's hands and feet together. The ancient Monkhayu counted by eighteens (ORANDET), and this is still a custom in Ismahi. DECT ER ȞAEP 'seventeen' is another sinister number.
<p>[<b>20 - 90</b>] The multiples of ten are formed with shortened forms of the numbers:
<blockquote><b>PTEDECT TMEDECT TIEDECT PANDECT SUESDECT IEDECT IODECT NERDECT</b></blockquote>
<p>Between these numbers one simply adds the remainder: PTEDECT AN, PTEDECT ĎUN, etc.
<p><b>SECAŤ</b> is ten tens or one hundred. This is a noun and is declined as such, the object counted being placed in the genitive: one says SECAŤ URESTUIE KEKEVUT 'he had one hundred men put to death'.
<p>The multiples of one hundred are formed with the abbreviated numbers:
<blockquote><b>PTESECAŤ TMESECAŤ TIESECAŤ PANSECAŤ SUESSECAŤ IESECAŤ IOSECAŤ NERSECAŤ</b></blockquote>
<p>Intermediate numbers are formed by addition: TMESECAŤ ER IODECT PANŤ, 385. (An added AN through PAHOR is not declined.)
<p><b>MIL</b> is ten hundreds or one thousand. It is a noun, on the model of SECAŤ.
<p>Up to ten tens of thousands are indicated using the ordinal numbers: FTORE MIL is the second thousand, that is 2000; ȞAEPES MIL is 7000. Beyond this, the multiple is expressed as a number in itself, preceding MIL: TMEDECT ĎIN MIL, 33000.
<p><b>LEȞOS</b> is one hundred thousand [Verdurian <i>leh</i>]; it is also a noun, on the model of SECAŤ, and can be increased using the ordinal numbers: FTORE LEȞOS 200,000, up to DECTIS LEȞOS 1,000,000.
<p>If a higher number need be expressed, the multiple is expressed as a number in itself, preceding LEȞOS. This takes us as far as:
<blockquote><b>NERDECT NEBRI MIL ER NERSECAŤ ER NERDECT NEBRI LEȞOS ER NERDECT NEBRI MIL ER NERSECAŤ ER NERDECT NEBRI</b> = (99 mil + 900 + 99) leȟos + 99 mil + 900 + 99 = 9,999,999,999</blockquote>
This number plus one, a <i>leh</i> of <i>lehî</i> or 10,000,000,000, is called LEȞONDOS or the great <i>leh</i>.
<h3><a name="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The next simplest relators are additive conjunctions (<i>raspuyecî surmetecî</i>), which simply add (ER) or contrast (AC) two objects: ELORION <u>ER</u> ELOREIS 'king and queen'; TONOS <u>ER</u> GRILU 'rice and wheat'; OFORIS <u>AC</u> FROHES 'fertile yet cold'.
<p>They are not limited to conjoining nouns, but can join verbs (LAPRAE <u>ER</u> SALTAE 'he ran and lept') or entire sentences: CO CELEREN MACTANA ES <u>AC</u> COREIM BUTENONT, 'the city is on the river, but they have no boats'.
<p>Some verbs take as their object not a noun but an entire idea, that is, a sentence. The special conjunction DIA is used before a sentential object:
<blockquote><u>DIA ANELLOM BUVELAE</u> CLAETE.
<br>He swore that he did not steal the ring.
<p>PSIAŤ <u>DIA SANNO GARESMES SEIS</u> GADIT.
<br>Everyone perceives that you are a wise lord.</blockquote>
<p>Even if an entire sentence is an object, it occupies the normal position of an object, between subject and verb, as in the last example. However, it is common to move such a heavy constituent to the end or the beginning of the sentence:
<blockquote>PSIAŤ GADIT <u>DIA SANNO GARESMES SEIS</u>.
<br><u>DIA DOMORION VIRNIS ES</u> OREISTA EPES.
<br>That the steward is loyal may be true.</blockquote>
<p>A wish is introduced by the conjunction UT, followed by a remote tense:
<blockquote><u>UT</u> BAN TELNEMAI ER CUM CASSIA RENLODAI!
<br>May I find the way and return with the helmet!</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Prepositions">Prepositions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The prepositions (<i>ktëloži</i>), as their name indicates, tell <b>where</b> (<i>ktë</i>) an object is located or an action takes place. These can be divided into those concerned with position in space:
<blockquote>
<table><tr><td>IM</td>
<td>in, inside, into, among</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>IS</td>
<td>out of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>IR</td>
<td>above, over</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ȞUPE</td>
<td>under, below</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SUHER</td>
<td>on</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DE</td>
<td>from, off, of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>AD</td>
<td>to, toward</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>AIUS</td>
<td>away from</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>RAS</td>
<td>against, touching</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CO</td>
<td>near, by, alongside </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ON</td>
<td>among, at the house of, in the place of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CAEL</td>
<td>between</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SAS</td>
<td>through</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PRED</td>
<td>before, in front of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TRAS</td>
<td>across, over, beyond, behind</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
and those which indicate more abstract relationships:
<blockquote>
<table><tr><td>AND</td>
<td>for the benefit of </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PRO</td>
<td>in return for</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ICTE</td>
<td>before (time)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SACTE</td>
<td>after (time)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>AȞ</td>
<td>against, opposed to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>AB</td>
<td>through, via, using</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CUM</td>
<td>with </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>BUSAN</td>
<td>without </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ETA</td>
<td>about</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>HARAD</td>
<td>despite, although</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>If the location to be expressed is <b>static</b>, the noun which follows the preposition appears in the dative: IM MACTANAN 'in the city', IR MEIN 'above the water', AȞ ELORIONAN 'against the king'. Note that ETA is used with the dative (ETA MACTANAN 'about the city'), not with the nominative as in Verdurian.
<p><IMG width="367" height="269" alt="[Plan of the Temple of Enäron and Ishira in Ctésifon, Z.E. 1800. The temple of Enäron is round and is connected by a walkway with the temple of Ishira, which is rectangular with a semi-circle at one end. The temple complex also includes the Patriarch's residence, servants' quarters, a library, stables, a seminary, a kitchen and dining room, and a chapel. Outside the temple, there is a pool.]" title="Plan of the Temple of Enäron and Ishira in Ctésifon, Z.E. 1800" Align=right SRC="illo/cadhplan.gif">
A <b>dynamic</b> relationship is expressed with the other cases. As in Verdurian, if the object suffers a change ending up in the specified relationship, the <i>accusative</i> is used: IM AIĎNAUREN PROSAN 'walk into the temple', SUHER DORS TIPELEI SCADRAN 'mount onto the horse's back'.
<p>If the change is that the relationship no longer applies, the <i>ablative</i> is used: IM MACTANAD LAUDAN 'go out of the city', CAEL ARBIŤ TIMEN 'step out from between the trees'.
<p>We do not have this expression in Verdurian, because we have lost the ablative. When informed of it, some students wonder why motion <i>toward</i> is not expressed using the dative. The answer is that, when indicating the higher, dynamic relation, we must use a nobler case-- the accusative, which is higher on the case circle. The static relationship is indicated using the lower case, the dative.
<p>The preposition AD always indicates motion toward, and therefore is used only with the dative: AD NIERIMAN SCADRAN 'ride to the shrine'. When the dative is used without a preposition to indicate a destination, AD is understood. Similarly IS, which always indicates motion away, is used only with the ablative (IS ALADEIAN LAPREN 'run out of the village'); and an ablative of motion contains an understood IS.
<p>If the verb by its own nature rules out motion, simple location may be expressed by the ablative: ATONNOŤ TEKER 'stand in the room'; ASUENEID LESTAN 'talk (sitting in their) chairs.'
<h2><a name="Static">Static verbs, or expressions of state</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h2>
Without verbs (<i>mevloži</i>), language is able only to deal with mere existence, naming agents and their objects.
<p>In this chapter we will speak of the <b>static</b> (<i>nuncre</i>) verbs, which describe actions, states, and relations; in the next we will consider the category of <b>dynamic</b> (<i>olocec</i>) verbs, which allow us to refer to change and the exercise of power. This distinction is known as <b>aspect</b> (<i>nuncreisa</i>).
<h3><a name="infinitive">The infinitive</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The form of the verb you will find in the dictionary is the infinitive, which conveys nothing more than the bare meaning. Nonetheless the infinitive, like all verb forms, has a termination, which will always be one of --EC, -AN, -EN, -ER, -IR. These terminations identify which of the five circles (<i>launî</i>) the verb belongs to. For convenience, we name the circles by their infinitive form, so that LAUDAN 'go' belongs to the circle in -AN.
<p>The verb is normally inflected to show <b>tense</b> <i>[diďa]</i>, <b>person</b> <i>[ifke-cot]</i>, and <b>number</b> <i>[dimo]</i>. The infinitive is exempt from these requirements because it relates to another verb in the sentence which fulfills them. Thus we say LAUDAN VULU, I want to go. To refer the action to the past we write LAUDAN VULIE, I wanted to go, inflecting only the main verb of the sentence. Because the infinitive is not inflected, it is called <i>islaunë</i>-- outside the circle.
<p>The infinitive is also used to refer abstractly to any action: ZOBREC MELIES ES KEŤULIN, to play is good for children.
<h3><a name="present">The present tense</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The simplest form of the verb is the definite (<i>prilise</i>) present tense (<i>demeric</i>). It is used for relations which are currently or always true, or for any action which is taking place in the current time.
<p>For the verbs in --EC, the circle looks like this:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>DUMEC 'to think'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>AO</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ES</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>EOS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ONT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>OUS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>OM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The sides of the circle are named by the trustee nouns. The superior position is SEO 'I', since the surest and most meritorious course of action is to act by oneself. The right hand side, the next place of honor, belongs to the listener: LET 'thou' on the top, MUȞ 'you' on the bottom. The left hand side, the least place of honor, is given to whoever is neither speaker nor listener, TU 'he/she' for the top, CAI 'them' for the bottom. The bottom side is TAS 'we'.
<p>Thus <ul>
<li> The <b>right</b> hand is the <b>listener</b>, the <b>middle</b> is the <b>speaker</b>, and the <b>left</b> side is neither
<li> The <b>top</b> sides are all <b>singular</b> persons, the <b>bottom</b> being <b>multiple</b> persons.</ul>
The circles for the remaining verbs follow.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>KEKAN 'to kill'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>NOMEN 'to name'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEK<b>AI</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NOM<b>AI</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEK<b>ET</b></td>
<td>KEK<b>EIS</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>ET</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>EIS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEK<b>ONT</b></td>
<td>KEK<b>US</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>ENT</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>ES</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEK<b>AM</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NOM<b>EM</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>CLAGER 'to flog'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>PARIR 'to bet'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CLAG<b>U</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PAR<b>U</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAG<b>ET</b></td>
<td>CLAG<b>EUS</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>IT</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>EUS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAG<b>UNT</b></td>
<td>CLAG<b>US</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>INT</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>US</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CLAG<b>UM</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PAR<b>UM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<cite>In case Revouse's explanation is unclear, I add this explanatory diagram, relating the Cadinorian circle to our own traditional grammatical categories. I should note that a minority, troubled by the implication that TAS is getting the short end of the stick, places it directly under SEO; the effect however is more triangular than circular.</cite>
<blockquote>
<table><tr>
<td></td>
<td>1sg</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>3sg</td>
<td> </td>
<td>2sg</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>3pl</td>
<td></td>
<td>2pl</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<td>1pl</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote></blockquote>
<p>As an aid to memory, it can be noted:<ul>
<li> The <b>SEO</b> endings end in a vowel, the TAS in --M
<li> The <b>LET</b> and <b>MUȞ</b> endings end in --S; the LET endings always begin with -E-
<li> The <b>TU</b> and <b>CAI</b> endings end in --T, with an inserted --N- in the plural; the exception is DUMES
<li> The only differences between -AN and --EN are in the <b>bottom</b> half of the circle
<li> The only differences between --ER and --IR are in the <b>left hand</b> side of the circle
<li> Each circle has its own <b>characteristic vowel</b>, which appears in almost every ending:
<ul>
<li> O for DUMEC (in all except TU)
<li>E for NOMEN (in all except SEO)
<li>U for CLAGER(in all except TU)
<li>I for PARIR (in the left side of the circle only; elsewhere it follows CLAGER)
<li>A for KEKAN, in the TAS side; note that CAI borrows from DUMEC, and MUȞ from CLAGER
</ul>
</ul>
<p>The <b>Verdurian forms</b> can help the student master the Cadinor forms:<ul>
<li> The SEO endings are the same
<li> The LET endings have lost the final -S
<li> The TU endings have lost their final consonant, but recall the correct vowel, except for PARIT
<li> The TAS endings are the same, except that our -<i>en</i> verbs have forgotten --EM</ul>
Commentators have generally failed to grasp the full reasons behind our ancestors' choice of these endings. But this is a bootless quest in any aspect of the study of Cadinor; we had might as well ask why TIPEL, rather than some other sequence of letters, is the word for horse. With few exceptions, words do not suggest their meanings by their sound or by the appearance of their letters.
<h3><a name="past">The past tense</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The definite past tense (<i>scrifel</i>) is used to speak of states which are no longer, or of actions which have already taken place.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>DUMEC 'to think'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>I</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>U</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>IUS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>IUNT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>US</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>UM</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>KEKAN 'to kill'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>NOMEN 'to name'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEK<b>IO</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NOM<b>IO</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEK<b>AE</b></td>
<td>KEK<b>IOS</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>AE</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>IOS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEK<b>IONT</b></td>
<td>KEK<b>UOS</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>IONT</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>UES</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEK<b>UOM</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NOM<b>UOM</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>CLAGER 'to flog'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>PARIR 'to bet'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CLAG<b>IE</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PAR<b>IE</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAG<b>E</b></td>
<td>CLAG<b>IES</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>AE</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>IES</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAG<b>IENT</b></td>
<td>CLAG<b>ES</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>IENT</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>ES</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CLAG<b>EM</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PAR<b>EM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>Students often find this tense difficult, since it has been lost in Verdurian. It will be simple to learn once it is realized that it differs from the present almost entirely in the <i>vowels</i>.
<p> The characteristic <b>vowels</b> are:
<ul>
<li> U for DUMEC
<li> O for KEKAN and NOMEN
<li> E for CLAGER and PARIR</ul>
<p> They are used:
<ul>
<li> in the SEO form --I( ), except for DUMI
<li> in the CAI form -I( )NT, as well as the LET form --I( )S
<li> in the TAS form --( )M and the MUȞ form --( )S, preceded by -U- in the --N circles; but note the exceptional KEKUOS
<li> as the entirety of the TU ending in two cases (DUMU and CLAGE); but the other circles have a uniform -AE</ul>
<h3><a name="anterior">The past anterior tense</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The definite past anterior (<i>ižcrifel</i>) is used, as in Verdurian, when we are speaking of past events and wish to refer to events taking place at an even earlier time.
<p>It is formed by inserting -ER- or -IR- before the normal <i>past </i>tense endings. This is different from Verdurian, which uses the present tense endings, but adds them to the past root of the verb. -IR- is used for the -R verbs only. It should suffice to show a single verb circle:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>DUMEC 'to think'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>ERI</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ERU</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>ERIUS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ERIUNT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>ERUS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>ERUM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
The inserted --U- in the TAS and MUȞ forms belonging to the --N circles disappears in the past anterior; so that we write KEKEROS, not KEKERUOS.
<p>If the verb stem ends in a consonant followed by R, then before adding -ER- or -IR-, this final R is deleted and the consonant is doubled. Thus the SEO form of SUDRIR 'decide' in this tense is not SUDRERI, which would be difficult to pronounce, but SUDDERI.
<h3><a name="remote">The remote present tense</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
As creatures filled with fears and longings, we often feel the need to refer to states that are desired, doubtful, impossible, or yet to come. Cadinor requires us to carefully distinguish what is true (whether in the present or the past) from what is false or not known, by expressing the latter in the <b>remote </b>(<i>buprilise</i>) tenses. This distinction is known as <b>mood</b> (<i>priliseca</i>).
<p>The remote present is formed by inserting --ET- or --EM- before the normal present tense endings. --EM- is used for the --N verbs only.
<p>Doubled vowels are generally simplified in the remote tense; and in place of the difficult--ETIT in the --R TU forms we find --ETIS. These differences from the definite present are highlighted in red below.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>DUMEC 'to think'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>ETAO</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ETES</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>ET<font color="red">EI</font>S</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ETONT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>ET<font color="red">O</font>S</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>ETOM</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>KEKAN 'to kill'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>NOMEN 'to see'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEK<b>EMAI</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NOM<b>EMAI</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEK<b>EMET</b></td>
<td>KEK<b>EM<font color="red">E</font>S</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>EMET</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>EM<font color="red">E</font>S</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEK<b>EMONT</b></td>
<td>KEK<b>EMUS</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>EMENT</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>EMES</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEK<b>EMAM</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NOM<b>EMEM</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>CLAGER 'to flog'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>PARIR 'to bet'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CLAG<b>ETU</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PAR<b>ETU</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAG<b>ETI<font color="red">S</font></b></td>
<td>CLAG<b>ET<font color="red">O</font>S</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>ET<font color="red">I</font>S</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>ET<font color="red">O</font>S</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAG<b>ETUNT</b></td>
<td>CLAG<b>ETUS</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>ETINT</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>ETUS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CLAG<b>ETUM</b></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">PAR<b>ETUM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
Various are the uses of the remote mood, including:<ul>
<li> <b>Wishes</b>: UT <u>SPASIEMET</u>, may he deliver me!
<li> <b>Doubts</b>: PRUCIONAN <u>SKADECES</u>. The innkeeper may or may not have been paid.
<li> <b>Future</b> references: ZEPTER MAIMENIAA CREGEMAM, tomorrow we shall eat the turkey.
<li> <b>Indefinite</b> references: ELORION PRADE <u>TELNEMET</u>. The king is looking for an honest man.
<li> <b>Conditional</b> expressions: LET SNUCECOŤ, IM MEIN <u>BUTEKETUM</u>. If you had obeyed, we would not be standing in water.
<li> <b>Questions</b>: <u>PENTEMES</u>. Are you singing?</ul>
<h3><a name="remotepast">The remote past tense</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The remote past tense is formed in the way of the remote present, but with a different insertion: -EC- for the --C circle, -IN- for the --N circles, and --IR- for the --R circles. As an example:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>DUMEC 'to think'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>ECAO</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ECES</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>ECEIS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ECONT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>ECOS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>ECOM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The clever student will be reminded of the ordinary Verdurian past tense, and this is for a reason. During the Dark Years it seems that people's recollections of the very past became clouded, perhaps because the greatness of the Cadinorian years seemed mythical in comparison with the brutal, squalid present. It became conventional to refer to past events using the remote tenses. Thus the Cadinor remote past became our simple past. There is no longer any reason to express doubt about the past, but lost tenses cannot be revived.
<p>As with the definite past anterior, verbs ending in a consonant plus R are modified before adding -IR: SUDRIR 'judge' has the remote past SEO form SUDDIRU.
<h3><a name="imperative">The imperative</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The <b>imperative</b> (<i>befel</i>) is a remote tense, because it refers to desired events; but it is separate from the ordinary remote present because it is specialized for giving orders.
<p>The Verdurian imperative can be applied to the top and bottom of the circle (SEO and TAS), but this is a dubious practice and not permitted in Cadinor. Instead of suggesting an order to oneself, one should simply act. In this way we see that Cadinor discourages procrastination and rumination, which are fatal to the will.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>DUMEC 'to think'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>UAS</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>E</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>UANT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>EL</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>KEKAN 'to kill'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>NOMEN 'to name'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEK<b>UAT</b></td>
<td>KEK<b>I</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>UAT</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>I</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEK<b>UANT</b></td>
<td>KEK<b>IL</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>UANT</b></td>
<td>NOM<b>IL</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>CLAGER 'to flog'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>PARIR 'to bet'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAG<b>AS</b></td>
<td>CLAG<b>U</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>UAT</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>U</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAG<b>ANT</b></td>
<td>CLAG<b>UL</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>UANT</b></td>
<td>PAR<b>UL</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>Some aids to memory: <ul>
<li> The word <i>eluá </i>('behold') derives from LEILUAT.
<li> The LET forms are all single vowels; the MUȞ forms add -L to them.
<li> The TU forms follow the model -(U)AS or -(U)-AT; the CAI forms replace the final consonant with -NT.</ul>
<h3><a name="negative">The negative</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
Negative (<i>arhemë</i>) forms of a verb are made by prefixing BU-:
<blockquote>
<p> BULEILAI, I do not see.
<br>BUCTANAE, He did not come.
<br>AIĎI BULIUBETEIS? Do you not love the gods?
</blockquote>
<p>It is not good writing to use the negative forms when a negative pronoun already exists in the sentence:
<blockquote>
<p> NIKTOS SCRIT. No one knows.
<br>NIKUDAA LAUDAI. I went nowhere.
</blockquote>
<p>This rule does not however apply to the negative particle NIS, which is used to single out an item in the sentence, besides the verb, for denial.
<blockquote>
<p> NIS TIPEL BUHESCEVUI. It wasn't the horse that I lost.
<br>BUVIRNIS NIS ESARȞ BUES. It isn't the prefect that is disloyal.
<br>ELORION NIS RURA NIS MACTANA VULT. Neither city nor country desires this king.
</blockquote>
<p>Caďinor does not have words for <b>yes</b> or <b>no</b>; simple questions are answered by using the verb alone, in the definite mood, with or without the negative prefix as necessary.
<blockquote>
<p> --SURIA KEKINES? Did you kill the mouse?
<br>--KEKIO. Yes, I killed it. Or:
<br>--BUKEKIO. No, I didn't kill it.
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Exceptional">Exceptional verbs</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
Some verbs, for brevity, have shortened forms.
<h4><a name="ExInfinitive">Infinitive</a></h4>
Three verbs have an exceptional infinitive. All the forms of 'to do' have the root FASC-, but the infinitive is FAR, and its circle -EC; the root KAIV- 'to do what thing' has the infinitive KES, and the circle -AN; and the root NES- 'to be born' has the infinitive NEN, and the circle -EN.
<h4><a name="ExPresent">Present tense</a></h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>ESAN 'be'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>EPESAN 'be able to'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>CTANEN 'come'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>FAR 'do'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">SAI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">EUSAI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CTAI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FAEU</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ES</td>
<td>SEIS</td>
<td>EPES</td>
<td>EUSEIS</td>
<td>CTET</td>
<td>CTES</td>
<td>FAET</td>
<td>FAES</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SONT</td>
<td>ESOS</td>
<td>EUSONT</td>
<td>EPESOS</td>
<td>CTANONT</td>
<td>CTANUS</td>
<td>FASCONT</td>
<td>FASCOUS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ESAM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">EPESAM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CTANAM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FASCOM</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>IUSIR 'provide'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>LIUBEC 'love'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>KEŤEN 'bear'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>CULLIR 'gather'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">IUSU</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">LIUO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEŤUI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CULLU</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>IUT</td>
<td>IUS</td>
<td>LIUS</td>
<td>LIUOS</td>
<td>KEŤUT</td>
<td>KEŤUS</td>
<td>CULT</td>
<td>CULS</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>IUINT</td>
<td>IUSUS</td>
<td>LIUBONT</td>
<td>LIUBOUS</td>
<td>KENT</td>
<td>KEŤES</td>
<td>CULLINT</td>
<td>CULLUS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">IUSUM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">LIUBOM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEŤEM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CULLUM</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>OHIR 'hear'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>SCRIFEC 'know'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>NEN 'be born'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>KES 'to do what thing' </i></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">OHU</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">SCRIFAO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NEI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEAI</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>UIT</td>
<td>UIS</td>
<td>SCRIT</td>
<td>SCRIS</td>
<td>NIT</td>
<td>NIS</td>
<td>KIET</td>
<td>KIES</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>OHINT</td>
<td>OHUS</td>
<td>SCRIFONT</td>
<td>SCRIFOUS</td>
<td>NENT</td>
<td>NESES</td>
<td>KEHONT</td>
<td>KEHUS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">OHUM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">SCRIFOM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NESEM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEHAM</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>VOLIR 'want'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>FAUCIR 'leave'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>FAILIR 'run out'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">VULU</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FAU</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FAILU</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>VULT</td>
<td>VULS</td>
<td>FEUT</td>
<td>FEUS</td>
<td>FELT</td>
<td>FELS</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>VOLINT</td>
<td>VOLUS</td>
<td>FAUCINT</td>
<td>FAUCUS</td>
<td>FAILINT</td>
<td>FAILUS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">VOLUM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FAUCUM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FAILUM</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>CLAETER 'vow'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>CADIR 'order'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CLAEŤU</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CAĎU</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAETET</td>
<td>CLAETEUS</td>
<td>CADIT</td>
<td>CADEUS</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAEŤUNT</td>
<td>CLAEŤUS</td>
<td>CADINT</td>
<td>CAĎUS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CLAEŤUM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">CAĎUM</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
The forms for EPESAN are those of ESAN, with a preceding EP- before a vowel, EU- before a consonant.
<p>The forms for CTANEN are typical of many exceptional verbs. The top half of the circle is affected.
<ul>
<li>The final sound of the verb stem, excepting an -L, is omitted.
<li>The SEO form adds -O, -I, or -U (for -C, -N, -R verbs respectively)
<li>The TU form adds -S, -T, -T.
<li>The LET form adds -OS, -S, -S.
<li>The vowel in the second tier of the circle changes as well, according to the formula A --> E, E --> I, O --> U.
</ul>
The forms in the top half of the circle are the <b>only</b> exceptional forms of VOLIR. Forms like <i>vulint</i> are corruptions not found in the best authors, though ancestral to our own word <i>vulir</i>.
<p>Verbs ending in -TER or -TIR normally, for euphony, change the T to Ť before the U- of an ending, while those ending in -DER or -DIR change the D to Ď. Note that the CAI form is affected only for the -ER conjugation.
<h4><a name="ExPast">Past tense</a></h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>ESAN 'be'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>EPESAN 'be able to'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>KEŤEN 'bear'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>NEN 'be born'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FUIO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">EUSIO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KIO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NIO</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>FUAE</td>
<td>FUIOS</td>
<td>EPAE</td>
<td>EUSIOS</td>
<td>KIAE</td>
<td>KEŤIOS</td>
<td>NAE</td>
<td>NIOS</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>FUNT</td>
<td>FUOS</td>
<td>EUSIONT</td>
<td>EUSUOS</td>
<td>KEŤIONT</td>
<td>KEŤUES</td>
<td>NIONT</td>
<td>NESUES</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FUOM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">EUSUOM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KEŤUOM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">NESUOM</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>KREDEC 'believe'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>SUTEC 'adorn'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KREDI</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">SUTI</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KREĎU</td>
<td>KREDIUS</td>
<td>SUŤU</td>
<td>SUTIUS</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KREDIUNT</td>
<td>KREĎUS</td>
<td>SUTIUNT</td>
<td>SUŤUS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">KREĎUM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">SUŤUM</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
In metaphorical uses KEŤIO is used in place of KIO: IELAA KEŤIO 'I gave birth to an idea'.
<p>Many verbs ending in -DEC change the D to Ď, and those in -TEC change the T to Ť, before the U- of an ending (in the TU, MUȞ, and TAS forms).
<h4><a name="ExPast">Past anterior tense</a></h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>ESAN 'be'</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>EPESAN 'be able to'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FURIO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">EUSERIO</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>FURAE</td>
<td>FURIOS</td>
<td>EPERAE</td>
<td>EUSERIOS</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>FURIONT</td>
<td>FUROS</td>
<td>EUSERIONT</td>
<td>EUSEROS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">FUROM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">EUSEROM</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="ExRemote">Remote tenses</a></h4>
<blockquote>
<table><tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=4 align="center"><i>ESAN 'be'</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>remote present</i></td>
<td colspan=2 align="center"><i>remote past</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ESTAO</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ESCAO</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ESTES</td>
<td>ESTEIS</td>
<td>ESCES</td>
<td>ESCEIS</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ESTONT</td>
<td>ESTOS</td>
<td>ESCONT</td>
<td>ESCOS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ESTOM</td>
<td colspan=2 align="center">ESCOM</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>In addition, there are a number of verbs which form the remote stem not with the usual suffixes (present -ET, -EM; past -EC, -IN, -IR), but with a modified stem, plus the definite endings. For instance, the remote present of CURREC 'hold' is not <i>curretao</i> but CORSAO, and the remote past is CORSI. Here is a list of these exceptional forms.
<blockquote>
<b>Forms changing SC to SS:</b>
KESCEN --> KESS- 'stop';
<br>TOSCEN --> TOSS- 'suffice';
<br>FAR (root FASC-) --> FASS- 'do';
<br>LESCEN --> LESS- 'sell'
<p><b>Forms changing T to S:
</b> SALTER --> SELS- 'jump';
<br>VALTER --> VELS- 'be worth';
<br>METTAN --> MESS- 'put'
<p><b>Forms inserting S</b>: CURREC --> CORS- 'hold';
<br>DESIEN --> DESS- 'stop';
<br>STERER --> STERS- 'watch over';
<br>MERIR --> MERS- 'measure';
<br>FERIEN --> FERS- 'bear (things)';
<br>LEILEN --> LELS- 'see'
<br>NURIR --> NORS- 'nurture'
<br>AMARIR --> AMERS- 'appreciate'
<p><b>Forms inserting a consonant:</b> DAN --> DON- 'give';
<br>NOER --> NOS- 'rain'
<p><b>Verbs changing the vowel to O: </b>PUGAN --> POG- 'finish';
<br>PUHAN --> POH- 'push';
<br>BRIGAN --> BROG- 'fight';
<br>SUBRAN --> SOBR- 'follow';
<br>DUCIR --> DOC- 'lead' ;
<br>LEGAN --> LOG- 'lie';
<br>LAUDAN --> LOD- 'go';
<br>KUSAN --> KOSS- 'chew';
<br>KEŤEN --> KOŤ- 'bear (young)';
<br>IUSIR --> IOSS- 'provide'
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Dynamic">Dynamic verbs, or descriptions of actions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h2>
To act is nobler than to be, but it is nobler yet to change, or to change other things. Thus the dynamic (<i>olocec</i>) verbs are greater than the static (<i>nuncre</i>) verbs. Compare, for instance:
<blockquote>
<p> IBRO MEDETAD TOMBAE. The book fell from the table.
<br>GIOS IBROM TOMBEVUT. The boy dropped the book.
<p> HOSOL MISCUM NACITET. The donkey is carrying the sack.
<br>DOMORION HOSOL NACITUT. The steward loads up the donkey.
<p> ȞMATULIT PENTEMONT. The slaves may sing.
<br>SANNO ȞMATULIN PENTUAT. The lord may have the slaves sing.
</blockquote>
<p>If the static verb reports a state, the dynamic verb reports a change in that state-- it <b>starts</b>, or <b>comes to be</b>, or is <b>caused to be</b>. Because we have lost the dynamic verbs in Verdurian, students often have trouble grasping their meaning. Below are listed a number of verbs, with their static and dynamic meanings. From this list it is possible to understand the subtle power of the dynamic aspect, and to admire the economy of our ancestors, who achieved with one verb what we can only express with two.
<p>The static verb is not restricted to states; it can also report simple actions-- for instance LAUDIO 'I went'. In such cases the dynamic verb is causative: TUA LAUDEVUI 'I caused him to go.'
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#A0DDA0">
<td>verb</td>
<td>static meaning</td>
<td>dynamic meaning</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ADVEITEN</td>
<td>answer</td>
<td>make to answer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>AIUBREN</td>
<td>rest</td>
<td>retire</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>AMARIR</td>
<td>appreciate</td>
<td>come to appreciate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ASIR</td>
<td>be seated</td>
<td>sit down</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>BAEȞDAN</td>
<td>portray</td>
<td>make a portrait of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>BRIGAN</td>
<td>fight</td>
<td>begin fighting</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>BURUȞAN</td>
<td>use (a tool)</td>
<td>pick up (the tool)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CEPAN</td>
<td>abstain</td>
<td>give up</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CERNAN</td>
<td>sift, separate</td>
<td>put to the test</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CINTURAN</td>
<td>surround</td>
<td>go around</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CLAETER</td>
<td>vow</td>
<td>administer an oath</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CREGEN</td>
<td>eat</td>
<td>feed; come to eat</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CTANEN</td>
<td>come</td>
<td>bring </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>CULPIR</td>
<td>be guilty</td>
<td>accuse</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DEMERIR</td>
<td>exist</td>
<td>create</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DESIEN</td>
<td>stop (doing something)</td>
<td>stop (someone acting)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DITAVAN</td>
<td>enjoy</td>
<td>come or cause to enjoy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DORMIR</td>
<td>sleep</td>
<td>fall asleep</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUCIR</td>
<td>head for</td>
<td>steer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ĎIAN</td>
<td>extend</td>
<td>propel</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>FAILIR</td>
<td>be necessary</td>
<td>run out</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>FERIEN</td>
<td>bear</td>
<td>lift</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>GUEBREC</td>
<td>fear</td>
<td>terrify</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>HABER</td>
<td>wear</td>
<td>put on</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>HASCIR</td>
<td>maintain</td>
<td>argue</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ȞIRAN</td>
<td>flutter</td>
<td>shake vigorously</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>IDURAN</td>
<td>desire</td>
<td>fall for</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>KEŤEN</td>
<td>bear</td>
<td>beget</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>LACEN</td>
<td>dwell</td>
<td>move in</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>LEILEN</td>
<td>see</td>
<td>become aware of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>LIHALAN</td>
<td>rise</td>
<td>raise</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>MALTREN</td>
<td>be sick</td>
<td>make sick</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>MONNAN</td>
<td>work</td>
<td>hire</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>NACITAN</td>
<td>carry</td>
<td>load up</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>NOER</td>
<td>rain</td>
<td>start raining</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>NURIR</td>
<td>grow</td>
<td>raise, rear</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>OBRENIR</td>
<td>sit in judgement</td>
<td>make a judgment</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PILLATIR</td>
<td>blink</td>
<td>shock</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PLESTEN</td>
<td>be spun (cloth, stories)</td>
<td>spin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PRECUREC</td>
<td>beg</td>
<td>impoverish</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PRENAN</td>
<td>take</td>
<td>grab</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PSORER</td>
<td>serve</td>
<td>enter the service of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>PUGAN</td>
<td>end</td>
<td>finish</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>RABRIR</td>
<td>be delightful</td>
<td>delight</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>RIDRIR</td>
<td>laugh</td>
<td>burst out laughing</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SCADRAN</td>
<td>ride</td>
<td>mount</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SCRIFEC</td>
<td>know</td>
<td>learn</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SKADEC</td>
<td>pay</td>
<td>punish</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SNUCAN</td>
<td>obey</td>
<td>give orders</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SPURIR</td>
<td>be subject to</td>
<td>surrender</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>SUMERIR</td>
<td>study</td>
<td>teach</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TEKER</td>
<td>be standing</td>
<td>stand up</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TENEC</td>
<td>have</td>
<td>obtain</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TROMIR</td>
<td>go astray</td>
<td>trick</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>TUORAN</td>
<td>flow</td>
<td>pour</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ŤIBEC</td>
<td>hurry</td>
<td>urge on</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>VALTER</td>
<td>be worth</td>
<td>evaluate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>VEŤURAN</td>
<td>travel</td>
<td>depart</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ZENDAN</td>
<td>indicate</td>
<td>signal</td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The closest we have to the dynamic verbs in Verdurian is the inceptive prefix <i>za-</i>, as in <i>zashantan</i> 'start singing'. Writers who know their Caďinor may use <i>za-</i> as an equivalent of the dynamic aspect: <i>Belgom zashadne shual, </i>"The warrior mounted [began to ride] the horse."
<p>Dynamic verbs do not have a separate imperative, but share that of the static form: SUMERU! teach! AĎI SKADUANT! may the gods punish!
<h3><a name="DynamicDefinite">Dynamic definite tenses</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
Dynamic verbs have the same endings for all five conjugations. The <b>present</b> tense has the following forms:
<blockquote>
<table><tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>UI</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>UT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>UIS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>INT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>IS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>IM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The endings may be divided into stem and final; the <b>final</b> matches those of the static definite present; the <b>stem</b> is U for the top half of the circle, I for the bottom half.
<p>Before the U stem, a final D in the root changes to Ď, T to Ť, P to F; thus KREDEC 'believe' forms (TU) KREĎUT, CLAETER 'vow' forms CLAEŤUT, CEPAN 'abstain' forms CEFUT.
<p>The <b>past</b> tense is formed by the infix -EV-, followed by the present tense endings:
<blockquote>
<table><tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>EVUI</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>EVUT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>EVUIS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>EVINT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>EVIS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>EVIM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The <b>past anterior</b> is formed using the infix -ER-; thus, DUM<b>ERUI</b>, etc.
<h3><a name="DynamicRemote">Dynamic remote tenses</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h3>
The remote <b>present</b> is formed by changing the stem vowel to -UA- (except in the SEO and LET forms, which should simply be learned as exceptions).
<blockquote>
<table><tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>I</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>UAT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>IS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>UANT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>UAS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>UAM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The same euphonic changes before U are seen as in the definite present; eg. KREDEC forms (TU) KREĎUAT.
<p>The remote past is formed by infixing -IS- before the remote present endings, with -UA- simplified to -A- (and note the exceptional LET form):
<blockquote>
<table><tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>ISI</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ISAT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>ISUS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>DUM<b>ISANT</b></td>
<td>DUM<b>ISAS</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan=2 align="center">DUM<b>ISAM</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Adverbs">Adverbs, or expressions of manner</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h2>
Adverbs (<i>eceloži</i>) are the highest form of word, because they express judgment, the highest human faculty.
<p>An adverb is normally derived from an adjective, according to these rules:<ul>
<li> For first declension adjectives, add -A to the root: ZOL strong, ZOLA strongly; KAR happy, KARA happily.
<li> For the second declension, add -ECUE: BREVES short, BREVECUE shortly; ĎAHES correct, ĎAHECUE correctly.
<li> For the third declension, add -ICUE: TECNIS narrow, TECNICUE narrowly; CLECNIS avaricious, CLECNICUE avariciously.
<li> MELIS 'good' has the exceptional adverbial form MELIO 'well'; and DURENGES 'bad' becomes AVECUE 'badly'. </ul>
Since the adverb refers to the action as a whole, it is placed either next to the verb or (for more emphasis) at the beginning of the sentence:
<blockquote>
<p>GINA PON <u>ĎORINDA</u> LIUS.
<br><u>ĎORINDA</u> GINA PON LIUS.
<br>The maiden passionately loves the warrior.
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Sentences">Sentences, or ensembles of objects acted upon </a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</a></font></h2>
To this point we have studied words, which are the elements of speech; but the substance of speech is made of up of sentences (<i>sulirulî</i>), or ensembles of words expressing a state or an action.
<p>The simplest complete sentence consists of a single verb, such as an imperative, or a description of the action of a character already known, or an action without proper subject.
<blockquote>
LAUDI. Go!
<br>CTANAI. I am coming.
<br>NOET. It is raining.
<br>VENCAE. He conquered.
</blockquote>
Next in order of complexity are sentences consisting of a subject, and the action which is predicated of it.
<blockquote>
FALAȞ FAUCAE. The soldier left.
<br>MACTANA LAINET. The city is suffering.
<br>ARBOS KESTERAE. The tree had fallen over.
</blockquote>
<p>Next come sentences having only an object, which are more complex because they imply also an unstated or known actor.
<blockquote>
<p> DOM CURRI.
I bought the house.
<br> MACTANAA VENCAE.
He conquered the city.
<br> AIĎOCLIŤON DIO.
I gave (it) to the priest.
<br> PARENEID CTET.
It comes from the mountains.
</blockquote>
<p>Next come sentences with both subject and object stated, or multiple objects.
<blockquote>
<p> URESTU SAEAA LIUS.
A man loves a woman.
<br> IBROM AIĎOCLIŤON DEM.
We gave the book to the priest.
<br> BELACAA VIRAȞOŤ CARPEVUI.
I seized this sword from the enemy.
<br> ELORION CTESIFONAN ARAUNICOROŤ LAUDET.
The king is going from Aránicer to Ctésifon.
</blockquote>
<p>Every sentence except the simplest has two <b>places of honor </b>(<i>asuenî lonei</i>)-- the beginning and the end. The last of these is the nobler, for it is the last word heard, and thus stays in the mind like the last chord of a song ringing in the air. The end of the sentence is therefore the normal place for the <b>verb</b>, which encompasses all the objects of the sentence and explains their relations.
<p>The <b>order</b> <b>of the nouns</b> is determined by their position in the word circle. A higher position takes precedence over a lower; the stronger right side takes precedence over the left. Thus the nominative precedes the accusative, and that, the dative or ablative; while a dative precedes an ablative.
<p>We see decadence in our own language, where the verb confusedly takes up a position between the subject and the objects of the sentence. How much more proper and logical is the Caďinor order, for the actors are named first, and then the action! The nouns are all together, laid out in order of nobility, and the verb then comes to give them meaning, or movement, or judgment.
<p>Nobility is not, however, the only concern of the writer; there are also familiarity, suspense, emphasis, and grace. If an actor has been <b>previously referred to</b>, for instance, it is normally stated <b>first</b> in the sentence, so that the reader may be reminded of what is already known, and move to what is unknown.
<blockquote>
<p> ZOLBAREȞ BOUNAA TELNEVUT. <u>BOUNAA</u> IM AETANIA PUHAE BANSES.
<br>Zolbareȟ found the cow. The cow was pushed into the lake by a foreigner.
</blockquote>
<p>In the example, BOUNAA 'the cow' takes the initial place of honor because she is the subject of discussion, already referred to, while the nominative BANSES 'a stranger' is a new actor.
<p>The last example is also an example of <b>suspense</b> (<i>forheo</i>), in which a key element is withheld from the reader till the end of the sentence. A sense of surprise or tension is conveyed when the final position is used for anything but the verb.
<p>Because nouns and adjectives fully indicate their case in Caďinor, the writer has a wide range of possibilities, which cannot be exhausted by mere lists of rules, but involve <b>grace</b> (<i>sheli</i>), taste and mellifluity. All of the following sentences, for instance, are proper grammatically.
<blockquote>
<p>
<table>
<tr><td>AEFAR </td><td>MUDRAIS </td><td>KESUILEA </td><td>KIRAN </td><td>PELEGUT.</td></tr>
<tr><td><font size=2>lord </font></td><td><font size=2>wise </font></td><td><font size=2>estate-acc </font></td><td><font size=2>wife-dat </font></td><td><font size=2>trust-dynamic</font></td></tr>
</table>
The wise lord his estate to his wife entrusts.
<p> KIRAN AEFAR MUDRAIS KESUILEA PELEGUT.
<br>To his wife the wise lord his estate entrusts.
<p> MUDRAIS KIRAN KESUILEA AEFAR PELEGUT.
<br>Wise, to his wife his estate the lord entrusts.
<p> KESUILEA MUDRAIS AEFAR PELEGUT KIRAN.
<br>His estate the lord (who is) wise entrusts to his wife.
<p> PELEGUT MUDRAIS KIRAN KESUILEA AEFAR.
<br>Entrusts, wise, to his wife, his estate, the lord.
<p> AEFAR KESUILEA PELEGUT KIRAN MUDRAIS.
<br>The lord his estate entrusts to his wife, (if) wise.
<p> KIRAN AEFAR MUDRAIS PELEGUT KESUILEA.
<br>To his wife the wise lord entrusts his estate.
</blockquote>
<p>The student, bearing in mind the logical order, the principles of suspense and familiarity, and even the sound of the words, should consider the effect intended by the writer in each of these sentences.
<p>
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