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<H2><a name="contents">Cuêzi <img src="illo/cuezi.gif" title="Cuêzi"></a></H2>
<a href="#Introduction"><b>Introduction</b></a> <img src="redball.gif">
<a href="#Sources">Sources</a> -
<a href="#Dialects">Dialects</a>
<br><a href="#Phonology"><b>Phonology</b></a>
<br><a href="#Orthography"><b>Orthography</b></a> <img src="redball.gif">
<a href="#Spelling">Spelling rules</a>
<br><a href="#Morphology"><b>Morphology</b></a>
<br>
<a href="#Nominal">Nominal declension</a> <img src="redball.gif">
<i>
<a href="#Masculine">Masculine</a> -
<a href="#Neuter">Neuter</a> -
<a href="#Feminine">Feminine</a> -
<a href="#Unusual">Unusual endings</a>
</i>
<br>
<a href="#Adjectival">Adjectival declensions</a> <img src="redball.gif">
<i>
<a href="#First">First </a> -
<a href="#Second">Second </a> -
<a href="#Third">Third </a> -
<a href="#Comparatives">Comparatives</a>
</i>
<br>
<a href="#Pronouns">Pronouns</a> <img src="redball.gif">
<i>
<a href="#Other">Other pronouns and determiners</a>
</i>
<br>
<a href="#Verbal">Verbal morphology</a> <img src="redball.gif">
<i>
<a href="#Active">Definite</a> -
<a href="#remote">Remote</a> -
<a href="#imperfect">Imperfect</a> -
<a href="#Passive">Passive voice</a> -
<a href="#Causative">Causative</a> -
<a href="#Inceptive">Inceptive</a> -
<a href="#Infinitive">Infinitive</a> -
<a href="#Participles">Participles</a> -
<a href="#Tobe">To be</a> -
<a href="#Unusualv">Unusual verbs</a>
</i>
<br><a href="#4"><b>Derivational morphology</b></a><img src="redball.gif">
<a href="#Nominalizers">Nominalizers</a> -
<a href="#Adjectivizers">Adjectivizers</a> -
<a href="#Verbalizers">Verbalizers</a> -
<a href="#Names">Names</a>
<br><a href="#Syntax"><b>Syntax</b></a>
<br>
<a href="#Word">Word order</a> -
<a href="#Case">Case usage</a>
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<a href="#Noun">Noun phrases</a> <img src="redball.gif">
<i>
<a href="#Numbers">Numbers</a> -
<a href="#Comparative">Comparative expressions</a> -
<a href="#Prepositions">Prepositions</a>
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<a href="#Tense">Tense usage</a> <img src="redball.gif">
<i>
<a href="#Infinitives">Infinitive</a> -
<a href="#Tense">Tense</a> -
<a href="#Mood">Mood</a> -
<a href="#Conditional">Conditional expressions</a> -
<a href="#Aspect">Aspect</a> -
<a href="#Passives">Passive</a> -
<a href="#Causatives">Causatives</a>
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<a href="#Subordinate">Subordinate clauses</a> -
<a href="#Clitics">Clitics</a> -
<a href="#Negatives">Negatives</a> -
<a href="#Questions">Questions</a> -
<br><a href="#Examples"><b>Examples</b></a>
<br><a href="cuezilex.htm"><b>Lexicon</b></a>
<p><i>To view this page properly you'll need a Unicode font. The following characters should look like the (boxed) graphic-- though the lowercase d-hachek and t-hachek probably won't. (I think Windows and MacOsX users will be OK. If you have an earlier Mac, load the Central European fonts from your System disk-- do a custom install and look under Language Kits.)</i>
<p><center>
<!-- ���� --> ā ē ī ō ū
<!-- AEIOU: --> Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū
<!-- ch --> č
<!-- dh --> ď
<!-- rh --> ř
<!-- sh --> š
<!-- th --> ť
<!-- zh --> ž
<!-- CH --> Č
<!-- DH --> Ď
<!-- RH --> Ř
<!-- SH --> Š
<!-- TH --> Ť
<!-- ZH --> Ž
<br><img src="cichars.gif"></center>
<hr>
<h2><a name="Introduction"><font color="#803800">Introduction</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
<IMG Align=right SRC="287.gif" alt="Map of Cuzei" title="map of ancient Cuzei">
Cuêzi is the language of the ancient Cuzeians, a people who ruled the Eärdur valley, and culturally and diplomatically dominated the entire Plain, from about -375 Z.E. till their absorption into the Caďinorian empire in 1024. Their language was supplanted by <a href="native.htm">Caďinor</a> in the subsequent centuries, but continued to be studied for scholarly and literary reasons. In recent times the language has undergone something of a revival, as Verdurian scholars attempt to understand the history of the Plain, and Eleďe intellectuals make the effort to read the Book of Eīledan in its original tongue.
<p>Cuêzi is a branch of <b>Karazi</b> branch of the <a href="eastern2.html">Eastern language family</a>, and is thus related to ancient Nimoicu, Coruo, Sainor, Bucardo, and Sainor, as well as modern Caizu, Kešvareni, and Losainu. (None of the latter, however, are direct descendents of Cuêzi, but belong to different sub-branches of Karazi.) It is more distantly related to Caďinor, Xurnáš, and the Naviu languages.
<h4><a name="Sources"><font color="#803800">Sources</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Cuêzi was the first language of the Plain to be written, beginning circa -200. The first important writings in Cuêzi are the epics, believed to have been written between -100 and 50, although some of them seem to be based on earlier oral tales. (The epics are set during the time of the invasion of the Plain by the Cuzeians and Caďinorians, displacing the earlier Meťaiun civilization; but they are so full of anachronisms that they must have been composed centuries later.)
<p>The Book of Eīledan is comprised of individual writings from almost the entire range of Cuzeian history, from the <i>Songs of Iáinos (Pettē Iáinex),</i> written about -75, to Îcēiledan's <i>Lamentations,</i> written after the fall of Eleisa. However, the bulk of the writings predate the year 250. The earliest manuscripts of the <i><a href="ciroma.htm">Count of Years</a></i> (<i>Rēneca sōniē</i>) date to -50 and -25 (based on earlier oral tradition), but it was rewritten around 125 by a poet, Anacūlato, and revised many times by Knowers and poets; it was also customary for scribes to bring the concluding section up to date to their own times.
<p>Clearly the "Book" was never seen by the Cuzeians as scripture. It is, rather, the cream of an evolving body of religious literature, compiled and edited in its final form (with further changes proscribed) by the Knowers during the persecution of their religion and people by the Caďinorians. (For more on Cuzeian religion, see <a href="cuzeian.htm"><i>Almean Belief Systems</i></a>.)
<p>(Wise as the compilers were, they were handicapped by lack of access to many important scrolls, as well as by their own prejudices, including a deep hatred for all things Caďinorian, and fusty views on what constituted good Cuêzi. The earlier, non-canonical forms of the component books are often livelier than the official versions, and more interesting to the student of Cuzeian language and literature.)
<p>There is an outpouring of literature from the Golden Age of Cuzei (104 to 440): plays, poetry, manuals of statecraft and spiritual instruction, letters, histories; from the Silver Age (to 600) and beyond there are also travelogues, philosophical and scientific speculations, essays, biographies, songs, chronicles, even novels and literary criticism.
<h4><a name="Dialects"><font color="#803800">Dialects</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Our knowledge of Cuêzi dialects is scanty. Literature was almost invariably written in the dialect of Eleisa, and regional departures from this standard are described by the Cuzeians as errors, rusticisms, or barbarisms. We are forced to rely for our information on speeches by rustic characters in plays; grammarians' lists of proscribed regionalisms; a few songs or annotations in dialect; errors in the writing of non-Eleitans, and so on.
<p>In general there were three major dialect areas:
<ul>
<li> <b>Northern</b>, spoken in Lācatur and in Sūās, the portion of Cuzei north of Alaldas
<li> <b>Central</b>, spoken in central Cuzei and south along the river as far as Etêia Mitano
<li> <b>Southern</b>, spoken in the south, especially the second city of Cuzei, Aure Árrasex </ul>
These dialects remained mutually intelligible all through the Golden and Silver Ages; but in later times there are increasing complaints about the "shabby speech" of the peasants and even the intelligentsia, and some rural dialects, at least, became incomprehensible to monodialectal Eleitans. (Some very early sources from Aure Árrasex show some differences from the standard which are commonly assumed to be dialectal, though they are not always easy to relate to what we know of the dialects.)
<p>Cuzei being largely rural, and the non-Eleitan dialects having no approved literary expression, speech varied from town to town, or even from House to House. The speech of the nobles and upper servants, who spent more time in Eleisa, and interacted frequently with their peers from other Houses, tended to approach the Eleitan ideal, so that the regional dialects were class dialects as well.
<p>Characteristic of the southern dialects are <b>ž</b> for Central <b>y</b> (<i>ružisi</i> 'red'), <b>ht</b>- for <b>ut</b>- (<i>htāne</i> 'come'), and <b>w</b> for <b>v</b> (<i>ewissas</i> 'knower'). Similar giveaways of Northern dialect include the fall of intervocalic voiced consonants (<i>xowe</i> 'barley'), and the raising of Cuêzi's frequent <b>ae</b> diphthongs to /aj/, as in <i>mayca</i> 'nobody'.
<p>Perhaps more striking than the regional variation is the <b>chronological</b>, inasmuch as the corpus of written Cuêzi extends over 1700 years. Some changes are noted in the discussion below; other changes of particular interest are the appearance of <b>r</b> and <b>l</b> in some words in very early manuscripts (e.g. <i>abrēna</i>, <i>cālco</i>), now understood as a retention from proto-Eastern; and the twin tendencies in late Cuêzi to multiply auxiliaries, and to place them in second position in the sentence, rather than at the end of the sentence.
<p>'Early Cuêzi' can be taken as before the Golden Age (that is, before 104), and 'Late Cuêzi' as after the Silver Age (after 601).
<p>The form of the language described below is that written (and, at least during the early part of the period, spoken as well) during the Golden Age in Eleisa.
<h2><a name="Phonology"><font color="#803800">Phonology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
The <b>consonantal system</b> of Cuêzi is as follows:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><td><i>labial</i> <td><i>dental</i> <td><i>alveolar</i> <td><i>velar </i></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0" rowspan=2><i>stops</i>
<td><b>p</b>
<td><b>t</b> <td>
<td><b>c</b>
<tr> <td><b>b</b>
<td><b>d</b> <td>
<td><b>g</b>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0" rowspan=2><i>fricatives</i>
<td><b>f</b> <td>
<td><b>s</b>
<td><b>x</b>
<tr> <td><b>v</b> <td>
<td><b>z</b>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><i>nasals</i>
<td><b>m</b>
<td><b>n</b>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><i>laterals</i> <td>
<td><b>l</b>
<td><b>r</b>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><i>semivowels</i>
<td><b>w</b> <td>
<td><b>y</b>
</table></blockquote>
<p><b>c</b> is the /k/ sound. <b>c</b> and <b>g</b> are always hard, not soft as in <i>cell</i> or <i>gem</i>.
<p>In early Cuêzi <b>x</b> is a velar fricative (as in <i>Bach</i>); later it was the palatal fricative [ç] of German <i>ich</i>, and in late Cuêzi it weakened to /h/.
<p><b>t</b>, <b>d</b>, and <b>n</b> are pronounced with the tongue against the teeth. <b>n</b> assumes the point of articulation of a following consonant; thus <i>incāu</i> is pronounced [iŋka:w].
<p><b>l</b> is always clear (as in <i>look</i>), never dark (as in <i>cool</i>); <b>s</b> is never voiced (as in <i>wise</i>).
<p><b>f</b> and <b>v</b> are, as the chart indicates, bilabial fricatives, rather than labiodental ones, as in English. <b>f</b> is the [<font face="Symbol">f</font>] in Japanese <i>Fuji</i>; <b>v</b> is the [<font face="Symbol">b</font>] in European Spanish <i>haber</i>.
<p><b>r</b> is an approximant, not tapped or trilled, but not retroflexed like the Midwestern American r.
<p>Cuêzi has a seven-<b>vowel</b> system /i e <font face="symbol">e</font> a <img src="illo/openo.gif" alt="open O"> o u/, as in Italian. The orthographic representations <b>i a u</b> are straightforward. Closed /e/ is represented as <b>e</b> word-finally, <b>ei</b> elsewhere; open /<font face="Symbol">e</font>/ is always spelled <b>e</b>, since it does not occur word-finally. Thus <i>Eleisa</i> /<font face="Symbol">e</font>lesa/. Likewise /o/ is represented as <b>o</b> word-finally, <b>ou</b> elsewhere; /<img src="illo/openo.gif" alt="open O">/ is spelled <b>o</b>, and does not occur word-finally.
<p>Each of these vowels can be pronounced long: <b>ā, ē, ēi, ī, ō, ōu, ū</b>. There is no difference in quality between short and long vowels-- only length.
<p>The semivowels [w] and [j] are arguably allophones of /u/ and /i/ rather than separate phonemes. A short <b>u</b> or <b>i</b> becomes a semivowel word-initially (<i>uelo</i> [w<font face="symbol">e</font>lo]) or between vowels (<i>ruyisi</i>); note that <b>i</b> is spelled <b>y</b> in these cases, but <b>u</b> does not change.
<p>Adjacent to another vowel, <b>u</b> and <b>i</b> generally form diphthongs (but without orthographic change): <i>maime</i> [majme]; <i>bardāu</i> [barda:w]. A literal pronunciation (e.g. [maime]) is always allowed, however; it's used in poetry and is common in the southern dialects.
<p>Cuêzi is a tonal language: the long vowels are pronounced with a medium-high even tone, the circumflexed vowels <b>â, ê, î, ô, û </b>with a falling tone, or a low tone. The low vowels are intermediate in length between short and long vowels. Short uncircumflexed vowels are generally pronounced with a medium tone, except immediately following a falling tone (even in a previous word), where they are pronounced low. A high tone in a syllable immediately following another high tone is pronounced somewhat higher.
<p>A few tonal contours (indicated on a 1 to 5 scale)
<pre>44 3 3 3 1 44 4 2 1 44 55
<br>mēlate brinâ lēve lôdas rīxū</pre>
<p>There is no stress accent in Cuêzi.
<h2><a name="Orthography"><font color="#803800">Orthography</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
The Cuzeians always said that they were taught writing by the ilii. This claim has been doubted, on the grounds that the Cuzeian alphabet is quite unlike the writing system for the ilian language, Eteodäole. On the other hand, no other human nation has been shown greater favor by the ilii than Cuzei, and Cuzeian religion is a modified form of ilian worship. Most likely the <i>idea</i> of the alphabet was due to the ilii, but letterforms were not borrowed from the ilian script (not easy to adapt to human phonology anyway). When we consider that the Cuzeian script is the only one we know that never passed through an ideographic or logographic phase, the borrowing becomes a near certainty.
<p>The earliest forms of the letters were pictographs, each picture being a representation of an object whose name began with that letter:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigU.gif"> <td><b>u</b> <td><i>utānar</i> 'door'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigA.gif"> <td><b>a</b> <td><i>araunas</i> 'eagle'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigO.gif"> <td><b>o</b> <td><i>olfas</i> 'nose'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigE.gif"> <td><b>e</b> <td><i>etêia</i> 'flower'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigI.gif"> <td><b>i</b> <td><i>ilenda</i> 'maiden'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigY.gif"> <td><b>y</b> <td><i>yêtu</i> 'feather'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigP.gif"> <td><b>p/b</b> <td><i>pomas</i> 'man'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigC.gif"> <td><b>c/g</b> <td><i>goêlu</i> 'wheat'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigT.gif"> <td><b>t/d</b> <td><i>tōuresiu</i> 'cup'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigS.gif"> <td><b>s/z</b> <td><i>sīxe</i> 'grape'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigX.gif"> <td><b>x</b> <td><i>xue</i> 'eye'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigR.gif"> <td><b>r</b> <td><i>rāsī </i>'pot'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigL.gif"> <td><b>l</b> <td><i>licū</i> 'bed'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigM.gif"> <td><b>m</b> <td><i>manāu</i> 'hand'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigN.gif"> <td><b>n</b> <td><i>nega</i> 'foot'
<tr><td><img src="illo/cuzbigF.gif"> <td><b>f/v</b> <td><i>vionnas</i> 'lyre'
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The ilian script does not operate on this principle; it must have been adopted as a mnemomic either by the Cuzeians or by the ilii who inspired them.
<p>The words above also served as the names of the letters; though it was common to abbreviate them to their first two syllables: <i>uta, ara, olfa, ete, ile</i>, etc. The word 'alphabet' derives from this convention: <i>utavio</i>.
<p>The letterforms shown are from a manuscript dated about ZE -150, and already show some stylization. For some time, however, fairly mimetic representations were fashionable; a tomb from -175 is famous for its calligraphy, with the letters like miniature paintings.
<p>There were originally multiple forms for each letter: <i>any</i> object whose name began with the desired sound could be drawn. Many liked the decorative or aesthetic effect; but increasing stylization made the variants merely confusing, and by about -100 the above list was standardized. Some variants did survive for quite some time, or in remote regions, which is no doubt why the Caďinorians of Araunicoros, when creating their alphabet, found <img src="illo/cadhk.gif" alt="K"> (for <i>cīllā</i> 'hair') as an alternative for <img src="illo/cadhc.gif" alt="C"> (from <i>goêlu</i> 'wheat'), and could adapt the first for the Caďinor /q/ sound, the second for /k/.
<p>By the Golden Age the letterforms had been simplified, voiced consonants were distinguished from unvoiced consonants with a bar, and the letters had been arranged in their canonical order:
<center>
<table>
<tr>
<td><img src="illo/cuzu.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuza.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzo.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuze.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzi.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzy.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzp.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzb.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzc.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzg.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzt.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzd.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzs.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzz.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzx.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzr.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzl.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzm.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzn.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzf.gif">
<td><img src="illo/cuzv.gif">
<tr>
<td>u <td>a <td>o <td>e <td>i <td>y
<td>p <td>b <td>c <td>g <td>t <td>d
<td>s <td>z <td>x <td>r <td>l
<td>m <td>n <td>f <td>v
</table>
</center>
<p>Some phonetic analysis is evident in the order of the alphabet, corresponding to the categories of sounds in the classic grammar of Pirāusio (ZE 350).
<ul>
<li> First come the <i>epâti</i> 'singing' tones (vowels), including <b>y</b>.<p>
<li> The <i>fūcatēi</i> 'coloring' tones (consonants) follow. These are divided into:<p>
<ul>
<li><i>bisûfiti</i> 'unsustained' sounds (stops <b>p b c g t d</b>)<p>
<li><i>sûfitēi</i> 'sustainable' sounds, divided in turn into<p>
<ul>
<li><i>esisi</i> 'whispering' (sibilants<b> s z x</b>)
<li><i>rômbitēi</i> 'resonant' (sonorants <b>r l </b>and nasals <b>m n</b>)
<li><i>ecisi</i> 'brushing' (bilabial fricatives <b>f v</b>).
</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
<p>The voiced consonants were called <i>gouritēi</i> 'barred', referring to the forms of the letters rather than to any phonetic fact.
<p>Those who ordered the letters seem not to have grasped the notion of places of articulation, as can be seen from the rather chaotic order p/b - c/g - t/d. Pirāusio however specified the proper tongue position for each of the consonants (and understood that voicing was connected to the vibration of the vocal cords).
<p>The indication of long vowels by a subscripted slash (<img src="illo/cuzlong.gif" title="Long vowels">), and low vowels by a superscript half-moon (<img src="illo/cuzcirc.gif" title="Low vowels">) was an innovation of the Silver Age grammarians. The diacritics were at first used only in grammars, word lists, and the holy books, and slowly spread to other books copied in the scriptoria; they were never used in correspondance or in official documents.
<p>(Some scholars have suggested that this concern for proper pronunciation shows that the pitch-accent system was falling into disuse, but there is no other evidence for this. Certain commentaries suggest the real reason: it was occasionally important to the interpretation of a passage to know which vowel was meant.)
<p>There were no punctuation marks, and spaces were inserted only between phrases, not between words. The title of Beretos' work would thus be represented
<blockquote>
<img src="illo/xuesi.gif" alt="Turn on images, man!" title="title in Cuêzi">
<!-- xu�sicranasf�saexeduntr�cinur�es�x�ntuneninema� -->
<br><b>Xuêsicranas</b> <b>fâsaex eduntrâcinu rāe sā xūntu Neni-Nemaē </b>
<br><i>A defense before the judges of my conduct which was in the land of Babblers</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The alphabet was adapted by the Arániceri for use with Caďinor around 650. A few of the differences reflect post-Golden Age changes in the Cuêzi script (e.g. the change from <img src="illo/cuzo.gif"> to <img src="illo/cadho.gif">, and the simplification of <img src="illo/cuze.gif"> to <img src="illo/cadhe.gif">), but others are Caďinorian developments.
<p>Toward the end of the Cuzeian kingdom, cursive forms of the script were developed, and a number of abbreviations came into common use. Spelling errors also become more frequent, indicating that sound changes were beginning to obscure the phonetic nature of the script. It takes some training to read a late Imperial document.
<h3><a name="Spelling"><font color="#803800">Spelling rules</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The following spelling rules affect inflectional paradigms, derived words, and affixes.
<ol>
<li>A stop (<b>p t c b d g</b>) assimilates to a following consonant (except laterals <b>l r</b>) in voicing: <i>radas</i> --> abl. <i>rattu</i>;<i> nîtas </i>--> dat. <i>nîdnu</i>.<p>
<li><b>n</b> before <b>m</b>, <b>b</b>, <b>p</b>, <b>l</b> --> <b>m</b>: <i>dun- </i>+ <i>bodê</i> = <i>dumbodê</i>.
<p> Similarly, <b>m</b> before <b>t</b>, <b>d</b>, <b>c</b>, <b>g</b>, <b>x</b> --> <b>n</b>: <i>pomas</i> --> ins. <i>ponco</i>
<li><b>aa</b> --> <b>ā</b>, etc.: <i>fabēias</i> --> pl. nom. <i>fabēī; </i>agentive <i>e</i> + <i>eruisû</i> 'redden' = <i>ēruidas</i> 'reddener'.<p>
<li><b>y</b> before a consonant becomes <b>i</b>; <b>i</b> between two other vowels becomes <b>y</b>: <i>Nayas</i> --> dat. <i>Nainu</i>; <i>narrûos</i> --> gen. pl. <i>narrûyē
<p></i>There are traditional exceptions, such as <i>etêia</i> 'flower'.
</ol>
<h2><a name="Morphology"><font color="#803800">Morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
<h3><a name="Nominal"><font color="#803800">Nominal declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Cuêzi possesses three <b>genders</b> (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and six <b>cases</b> (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, and instrumental).
<h4><a name="Masculine"><font color="#803800">Masculine nouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>case</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-<b>e</b></td>
<td>-<b>os, -as/i</b></td>
<td>-<b>as/āe</b></td>
<td>-<b>is</b></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. nom</b></td>
<td>oluon-</td>
<td>nōr-e</td>
<td>cor-os</td>
<td>āet-as</td>
<td>man-is</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. acc</b></td>
<td>oluon-(a)</b></td>
<td>nōr-</td>
<td>cor-</td>
<td>āet-a</td>
<td>man-u</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. gen</b></td>
<td>oluon-ex</td>
<td>nōr-ex</td>
<td>cor-ex</td>
<td>āes-ex</td>
<td>man-ex</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. dat</b></td>
<td>oluon-nu</td>
<td>nōr-nu</td>
<td>cor-nu</td>
<td>āet-anu</td>
<td>man-nu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. abl</b></td>
<td>oluon-tu</td>
<td>nōr-tu</td>
<td>cor-tu</td>
<td>āet-atu</td>
<td>man-tu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. ins</b></td>
<td>oluon-co</td>
<td>nōr-co</td>
<td>cor-co</td>
<td>āet-aco</td>
<td>man-co</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. nom</b></td>
<td>oluon-i</td>
<td>nō-i</td>
<td>cor-i</td>
<td>āet-āe</td>
<td>man-ū</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. acc</b></td>
<td>oluon-i</td>
<td>nō-ī</td>
<td>cor-i</td>
<td>āet-āe</td>
<td>man-ū</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. gen</b></td>
<td>oluon-iē</td>
<td>nō-iē</td>
<td>cor-iē</td>
<td>āet-aē</td>
<td>man-uē</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. dat</b></td>
<td>oluon-inu</td>
<td>nō-inu</td>
<td>cor-inu</td>
<td>āet-ānu</td>
<td>man-ūna</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. abl</b></td>
<td>oluon-itu</td>
<td>nō-itu</td>
<td>cor-itu</td>
<td>āet-ātu</td>
<td>man-ūta</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. ins</b></td>
<td>oluon-ico </td>
<td>nō-ico </td>
<td>cor-ico </td>
<td>āet-āco </td>
<td>man-ūco </td>
</tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>comb.</b></td>
<td>oluon-i-</td>
<td>nōr-i-</td>
<td>cor-i-</td>
<td>āet-a-</td>
<td>man-i-</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>The masculine nouns in -<b>e</b> almost all end in -<b>re</b>; these have plurals without the <b>r</b>. (Other consonants are not lost in the plural.)
<p>Masculine nouns in -<b>as</b> may decline like <i>coros</i> or like <i>āetas</i>. The former descend from proto-Eastern forms in <i>-Cs</i>; the latter from forms in <i>-as</i>. Fortunately the <i>āetas</i> forms are rare. (They're indicated in the Lexicon as <i>m2</i>.)
<p>In the consonantal declension, the s.acc. -<b>a</b> ending appears only for animate objects, and disappears entirely in later Cuêzi.
<p>Alternations of the root occur in the s.gen. and in the -<b>i</b>- plurals: <b>t</b> --> <b>s</b>, <b>c</b> --> <b>s</b>, <b>g</b> --> <b>y</b> due to sound changes on the way in from proto-Eastern. We also see <b>x --> c</b>, but only in the plurals. This process can be seen in the genitive <i>āesex</i> above; compare also <i>brexas</i> 'arm' --> pl. <i>breci</i>. It is blocked when the final consonant of the root is preceded by another consonant, or by some long or circumflexed vowels (e.g. <i>utâtos</i> -->gen. <i>utâtex</i>).
<p>Nouns in -<b>vas</b> change -<b>v</b>- to -<b>f</b>- (or sometimes -<b>b</b>-) in the singular, except for the genitive: <i>lēivas</i> 'wolf' --> acc. <i>lēif</i>. Similarly nouns in -<b>zos</b> change -<b>z</b>- to -<b>s</b>-: <i>mizos</i> 'word' --> ins. <i>misco</i>. (It is actually the -<b>v</b>- or -<b>z</b>- which is the innovation; compare proto-Eastern <i>*leyfs, *mis</i>.)
<p>Spelling rules 1 (voice assimilation) and 2 (place of articulation assimilation) apply to the -<b>nu</b>, -<b>tu</b>, and -<b>co</b> endings, for roots ending in a stop or a nasal: e.g. <i>pomas</i> 'man' --> dat. <i>ponnu</i>.
<p><b>Comb.</b> identifies the combining form, used in derivations; e.g. <i>manibodû</i> 'fill the hand'.
<h4><a name="Neuter"><font color="#803800">Neuter nouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>case</b></td>
<td>-<b>u</b></td>
<td>-<b>iu</b></td>
<td>-<b>o</b></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. nom</b></td>
<td>usol-u</td>
<td>il-iu</td>
<td>sūr-o</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. acc</b></td>
<td>usol-u</td>
<td>il-i</td>
<td>sūr-o</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. gen</b></td>
<td>usol-ex</td>
<td>il-iex</td>
<td>sūr-ex</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. dat</b></td>
<td>usol-nu</td>
<td>il-inu</td>
<td>sūr-onu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. abl</b></td>
<td>usol-tu</td>
<td>il-itu</td>
<td>sūr-otu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. ins</b></td>
<td>usol-uco</td>
<td>il-ico</td>
<td>sūr-oco</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. nom</b></td>
<td>usol-ū</td>
<td>il-iū</td>
<td>sūr-ō</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. acc</b></td>
<td>usol-ū</td>
<td>il-ū</td>
<td>sūr-ō</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. gen</b></td>
<td>usol-uē</td>
<td>il-uē</td>
<td>sūr-oē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. dat</b></td>
<td>usol-ūna</td>
<td>il-ūna</td>
<td>sūr-ōna</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. abl</b></td>
<td>usol-ūta</td>
<td>il-ūta</td>
<td>sūr-ōta</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. ins</b></td>
<td>usol-ūco </td>
<td>il-ūco </td>
<td>sūr-ōco </td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>comb.</b></td>
<td>usol-u-</td>
<td>il-i-</td>
<td>sūr-o-</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>Root alternations will also occur among the neuter nouns. Again, <b>t</b> --> <b>s</b>, <b>c</b> --> <b>s</b>, <b>g</b> --> <b>y</b> in the s.gen. of -<b>u</b> and -<b>o</b> nouns: <i>cāco</i> 'heel' --> gen. <i>cāsex</i>. The reverse process occurs in some (not all) -<b>iu</b> nouns, in the plural: <i>orbesiu</i> 'sunflower' --> pl.acc. <i>orbecū</i>.
<p>The -<b>iu</b> and -<b>iū</b> (nom.) forms change to -<b>y</b>- if preceded by a vowel: <i>meyu</i> 'water', <i>meyū</i> 'waters' (but s.acc. <i>mei</i>).
<h4><a name="Feminine"><font color="#803800">Feminine nouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>case</b></td>
<td>-<b>a</b></td>
<td>-<b>e</b></td>
<td>-<b>i</b></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. nom</b></td>
<td>etêi-a</td>
<td>aur-e</td>
<td>êd-i</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. acc</b></td>
<td>etêi-ā</td>
<td>aur-ê</td>
<td>êd-a</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. gen</b></td>
<td>etêi-aē</td>
<td>aur-eē</td>
<td>êd-iē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. dat</b></td>
<td>etêi-anu</td>
<td>aur-inu</td>
<td>êd-inu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. abl</b></td>
<td>etêi-adi</td>
<td>aur-edi</td>
<td>êd-idi</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. ins</b></td>
<td>etêi-alu</td>
<td>aur-elu</td>
<td>êd-ilu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. nom</b></td>
<td>etêi-ē</td>
<td>aur-ē</td>
<td>êd-ā</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. acc</b></td>
<td>etêi-ē</td>
<td>aur-ē</td>
<td>êd-ā</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. gen</b></td>
<td>etêi-eē</td>
<td>aur-eē</td>
<td>êd-aē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. dat</b></td>
<td>etêi-ēnu</td>
<td>aur-ēnu</td>
<td>êd-ānu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. abl</b></td>
<td>etêi-ēdi</td>
<td>aur-ēdi</td>
<td>êd-ādi</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. ins</b></td>
<td>etêi-ēlu </td>
<td>aur-ēlu </td>
<td>êd-ālu </td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>comb.</b></td>
<td>etêi-e-</td>
<td>aur-i-</td>
<td>êd-i-</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>In the -<b>a</b> nouns, <b>t</b> --> <b>s</b>, <b>c</b> --> <b>s</b>, <b>g</b> --> <b>y</b> in the plural: <i>tāuca</i> 'nipple' --> pl. <i>tāusē</i>. The reverse process, plus <b>c</b> --> <b>x</b> occurs in some (not all) -<b>i</b> nouns in the s.acc. and the plural: <i>lusi</i> 'Glade' --> pl. <b><i>lutā</b></i>.
<p>The s.gen. ending -<b>iē</b> changes to -<b>yē</b> after a vowel: <i>mâsei</i> 'mistress' --> <i>mâseyē</i>.
<p>Note that the genitive -<b>eē</b> is not simply a triple-length vowel; since the long vowels are high pitch, the -<b>e</b>- is clearly distinguished from the -<b>ē</b>.
<h4><a name="Unusual"><font color="#803800">Unusual endings</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Some nouns end in a long or circumflexed vowel, and these receive some special handling.<ul>
<li> If the nominative ends in -<b>ê</b>, only the s. abl. and s. ins. are affected, and those only in the feminine; all other forms are unaffected. Thus <i>ilaldê</i> 'silver' --> gen. <i>ilaldeē</i>, abl. <i>ilaldêdi</i>.
<li> If the nominative ends in -<b>â</b>, the dat., abl., and ins. are affected; e.g. <i>taiggâ</i> 'life' --> ablative <i>taiggâdi</i>.
<li> No nouns end in -<b>î</b>, -<b>ô</b>, or --<b>û</b>.
<li> If the noun ends in -<b>ā</b>, the dat., abl., and ins. are affected; e.g. <i>ambecā</i> 'grace' --> dative <i>ambecānu</i>.
<li> If a feminine noun ends in -<b>ē</b>, it's treated as a plural, and follows the plural declension of <i>aure</i>. Thus: <i>Ailuē</i> --> ins. <i>Ailuēco</i>. As all the instances are names, this causes no real problems.
<li> Masculine nouns in -<b>ē</b>, however, are treated as -<b>ee</b>, where the first <i>e</i> belongs to the root Thus <i>Inibē</i> --> gen. <i>Inibēx</i>, acc. <i>Inibe</i>, dat. <i>Inibenu</i>. The plural, if needed, works the same way: pl. nom. <i>Inibei</i>.
<li> No nouns end in -<b>ī</b>, -<b>ō</b>, or -<b>ū</b>.
<li> Masculine nouns in -<b>ās </b>are treated as if they ended in -<b>aas,</b> with the first <i>a</i> belonging to the root. Thus <i>Sūās</i> (which belongs to the <i>āetas</i> declension)--> gen. <i>Sūaex</i>, dat. <i>Sūānu</i>.</ul>
<h3><a name="Adjectival"><font color="#803800">Adjectival declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
There are three adjectival declensions. Since the masculine nominative forms do not distinguish the first and second declensions, the citation form for adjectives is the neuter nominative singular: e.g. <i>sōlo</i>, <i>lēve</i>, <i>sidi</i>.
<p>Adjectives normally agree with the nouns they modify in case, gender, and number: thus <b>aurinu ruyisanu</b> 'to the red house, <b>manūco leretōco</b> 'with clever hands'.
<p>From -100 onward it became common for the first of a pair of adjectives to appear in its undeclined combination form: thus <b>sīedi feroi xuzoladi</b> 'from a cold gray sea'. (These may well have been perceived as true combinations: <b>feroixuzoladi</b> 'cold-gray'. It is impossible to tell, since the Cuzeians did not write spaces between words.)
<p>By the time of the Golden Age the combination form was frequently used even for a single adjective: <b>ilenda gobrinti</b> 'a compassionate maiden', <b>Etêia Mitano</b> 'Flower of the South'. So far as we can see this usage was only proper when the adjective named an essential rather than an accidental or temporary property of the referent (it was therefore common in names and poetic formulas). Furthermore the undeclined form could appear only immediately before or after the noun; if it appeared anywhere else it must decline (e.g. <b>ilenda ê</b> <b>gobrinte </b>'the maiden is compassionate').
<p>In later periods the combination form could be used also to replace any of the oblique forms (dative, ablative, or instrumental-- e.g. <b>manāūco lereti</b>), and grammarians began to complain of its use in other contexts. Attestations of such overuse are actually fairly rare, from which it seems likely that the combination form had become usual in all contexts (save perhaps predication) in speech.
<h4><a name="First"><font color="#803800">First declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The forms are the almost the same as nominal declensions of the same gender and ending, except that nominatives and accusatives are identical.
<p>In late Cuêzi there is an increasing tendency to use the neuter forms for masculine nouns as well (since among adjectives the distinction is made only in this declension).
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>case</td>
<td>m</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>f</td>
<td>comb.</b></td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. nom</b></td>
<td>sōl-e </td>
<td>sōl-o </td>
<td>sōl-a </td>
<td>sōl-o</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. acc</b></td>
<td>sōl-e</td>
<td>sōl-o</td>
<td>sōl-a</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. gen</b></td>
<td>sōl-ex</td>
<td>sōl-ex</td>
<td>sōl-aē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. dat</b></td>
<td>sōl-nu</td>
<td>sōl-onu</td>
<td>sōl-anu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. abl</b></td>
<td>sōl-tu</td>
<td>sōl-otu</td>
<td>sōl-adi</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. ins</b></td>
<td>sōl-co</td>
<td>sōl-oco</td>
<td>sōl-alu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. nom</b></td>
<td>sōl-i</td>
<td>sōl-ō</td>
<td>sōl-ē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. acc</b></td>
<td>sōl-i</td>
<td>sōl-ō</td>
<td>sōl-ē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. gen</b></td>
<td>sōl-iē</td>
<td>sōl-oē</td>
<td>sōl-eē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. dat</b></td>
<td>sōl-inu</td>
<td>sōl-ōna</td>
<td>sōl-ēnu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. abl</b></td>
<td>sōl-itu </td>
<td>sōl-ōta </td>
<td>sōl-ēdi </td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. ins</b></td>
<td>sōl-ico</td>
<td>sōl-ōco</td>
<td>sōl-ēlu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Second"><font color="#803800">Second declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The feminine forms are like feminine nouns in -<b>e</b>. The masculine and neuter forms are identical, and resemble neuter nouns in -<b>u</b>.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>case</td>
<td>m</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>f</td>
<td>comb.</b></td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. nom</b></td>
<td>lēv-e </td>
<td>lēv-e </td>
<td>lēv-e </td>
<td>lēv-i</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. acc</b></td>
<td>lēv-e</td>
<td>lēv-e</td>
<td>lēv-e</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. gen</b></td>
<td>lēv-ex</td>
<td>lēv-ex</td>
<td>lēv-eē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. dat</b></td>
<td>lēv-inu</td>
<td>lēv-inu</td>
<td>lēv-inu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. abl</b></td>
<td>lēv-etu</td>
<td>lēv-etu</td>
<td>lēv-edi</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. ins</b></td>
<td>lēv-eco</td>
<td>lēv-eco</td>
<td>lēv-elu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. nom</b></td>
<td>lēv-ēi</td>
<td>lēv-ēi</td>
<td>lēv-ē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. acc</b></td>
<td>lēv-ēi</td>
<td>lēv-ēi</td>
<td>lēv-ē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. gen</b></td>
<td>lēv-eē</td>
<td>lēv-eē</td>
<td>lēv-eē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. dat</b></td>
<td>lēv-ēinu</td>
<td>lēv-ēinu</td>
<td>lēv-ēnu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. abl</b></td>
<td>lēv-ēitu </td>
<td>lēv-ēitu </td>
<td>lēv-ēdi </td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. ins</b></td>
<td>lēv-ēico</td>
<td>lēv-ēico</td>
<td>lēv-ēlu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>If the adjective ends in -<b>ê</b>, only the singular acc., abl., and ins. retain the circumflex; all other forms are unaffected. Thus <i>sīcicolê</i> --> m. s. gen. <i>sīcicolex</i>, m. s. abl. <i>sīcicolêtu</i>.
<h4><a name="Third"><font color="#803800">Third declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Again, the feminine forms resemble feminine nouns in -<b>i</b>, except for the s.acc.. The masculine and neuter forms are identical, and resemble the neuter nouns in -<b>i</b>, except for the nominative forms.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>case</td>
<td>m</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>f</td>
<td>comb.</b></td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. nom</b></td>
<td>sid-i </td>
<td>sid-i </td>
<td>sid-i </td>
<td>sid-i</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. acc</b></td>
<td>sid-i</td>
<td>sid-i</td>
<td>sid-i</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. gen</b></td>
<td>sid-iex</td>
<td>sid-iex</td>
<td>sid-iē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. dat</b></td>
<td>sid-inu</td>
<td>sid-inu</td>
<td>sid-inu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. abl</b></td>
<td>sid-itu</td>
<td>sid-itu</td>
<td>sid-idi</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>s. ins</b></td>
<td>sid-ico</td>
<td>sid-ico</td>
<td>sid-iu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. nom</b></td>
<td>sid-ū</td>
<td>sid-ū</td>
<td>sid-ā</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. acc</b></td>
<td>sid-ū</td>
<td>sid-ū</td>
<td>sid-ā</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. gen</b></td>
<td>sid-uē</td>
<td>sid-uē</td>
<td>sid-aē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. dat</b></td>
<td>sid-ūna</td>
<td>sid-ūna</td>
<td>sid-ānu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. abl</b></td>
<td>sid-ūta</td>
<td>sid-ūta</td>
<td>sid-ādi</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pl. ins</b></td>
<td>sid-ūco </td>
<td>sid-ūco </td>
<td>sid-ālu </td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Comparatives"><font color="#803800">Comparatives</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The comparative is formed by adding -<b>âte</b> (1st declension), -<b>âse</b> (2nd), or -<b>îse</b> (3rd) to the adjectival root. If the root contains a long vowel, the circumflex is removed. In any case the resulting form is a regular second-declension adjective.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>declension </b></td>
<td><b>comparative</b></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>sōlo</b> 'true'</td>
<td><b>sōlate</b> 'truer'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>lēve</b> 'new'</td>
<td><b>lēvase</b> 'newer'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>sidi </b>'thirsty'</td>
<td><b>sidîse</b> 'thirstier'</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Pronouns"><font color="#803800">Pronouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Cuêzi has an abundance of personal prounouns. First, there are masculine and feminine forms for each of the singular pronouns: a Cuzeian man calls himself <b>sēo</b>; a woman calls herself <b>sēi</b>. There is no such distinction in proto-Eastern; apparently the early Cuzeians became so used to having masculine and feminine declension patterns that they insisted on using them for pronouns too.
<p>Gender distinctions need not be made in the plural. One sometimes sees plural dative and ablative forms <b>tādi</b>, <b>tālu</b>, etc. for groups of women, but this is a hypercorrection which never achieved general use.
<p>There is no word for 'it'; <b>tāu</b> should be used for masculine and neuter nouns, <b>tāi</b> for feminine.
<p>There are distinct singular and plural second person pronouns. There is no familiar/formal distinction, however: any single person from King to peasant is <b>led</b> (or <b>lei</b>); any group of people is <b>māux</b>.
<p>Finally, note that there is both an exclusive we <b>tazū</b> (excluding the listener) and an inclusive one <b>letazū</b>. The latter obviously derives from expressions like <b>led tazū</b> 'thou us'; each form is simply the first syllable of the corresponding 'thou' form, plus the form for the exclusive we. <b>Letazū</b> is used only when there is a specific, individual addressee (e.g. when speaking to someone, or writing a letter); in the general sense of 'all of us' <b>tazū</b> is used.
<p>The Cuêzi pronouns show a good deal of reinterpretation in the descent from proto-Eastern. The singular genitives in *-<i>ay</i>, for instance,which should have been inherited as *-<i>āe</i>, have been replaced with nominal endings (<b>ex</b>, <b>ē</b>). The plural pronouns have been similarly adapted following nominal models. For instance, *<i>tāsu</i> should have been inherited as *<i>tāzu</i>, but <b>tazū</b> is the more typical form for a plural. However, Cuêzi has retained the suppletive forms seem in the accusative for 'I' and 'thou'.
<p>Subject pronouns are not needed in Cuêzi, except for emphasis, or to answer questions.
<p>It is a peculiarity of (all except Early) Cuêzi style that pronouns are not to be used to refer to deities; one must refer to <b>Eīledan</b>, <b>Iáinos</b>, <b>Ulōne</b> instead, or use alternative titles. (This rule only applies to explicit pronouns, not to dropped subjects.) It seems to have been considered impious to use pronouns to speak to or about God.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td><b>I/m</b></td>
<td><b>I/f</b></td>
<td><b>thou/m</b></td>
<td><b>thou/f</b></td>
<td><b>he</b></td>
<td><b>she</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>nom</b></td>
<td>sēo</td>
<td>sēi</td>
<td>led</td>
<td>lei</td>
<td>tāu</td>
<td>tāi</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>acc</b></td>
<td>etu</td>
<td>etu</td>
<td>ēr</td>
<td>ēr</td>
<td>tāua</td>
<td>tāya</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>gen</b></td>
<td>soex</td>
<td>soē</td>
<td>loex</td>
<td>loē</td>
<td>tāuex</td>
<td>tāyē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>dat</b></td>
<td>sēnu</td>
<td>sēnu</td>
<td>linu</td>
<td>linu</td>
<td>tāunu</td>
<td>tāinu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>abl</b></td>
<td>sētu</td>
<td>sēdi</td>
<td>letu</td>
<td>ledi</td>
<td>tāutu</td>
<td>tāidi</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>ins</b></td>
<td>sēco</td>
<td>sēlu</td>
<td>leco</td>
<td>lelu</td>
<td>tāuco</td>
<td>tāilu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td><b>we/excl</b></td>
<td><b>we/incl</b></td>
<td><b>you</b></td>
<td><b>they</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>nom</b></td>
<td>tazū</td>
<td>letazū</td>
<td>māux</td>
<td>cayū</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>acc</b></td>
<td>tāe</td>
<td>ertāe</td>
<td>mū</td>
<td>caē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>gen</b></td>
<td>tazuē</td>
<td>lotazuē</td>
<td>muē</td>
<td>cayuē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>dat</b></td>
<td>tānu</td>
<td>litānu</td>
<td>mūna</td>
<td>caēnu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>abl</b></td>
<td>tātu</td>
<td>letātu</td>
<td>mūta</td>
<td>caētu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>ins</b></td>
<td>tāco</td>
<td>letāco</td>
<td>mūco</td>
<td>caēco</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td> </td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td><b>what (s.)</b></td>
<td><b>(pl.)</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>nom</b></td>
<td>rāe</td>
<td>radē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>acc</b></td>
<td>rā</td>
<td>rade</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>gen</b></td>
<td>rāex</td>
<td>radaē</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>dat</b></td>
<td>rāenu</td>
<td>radanu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>abl</b></td>
<td>rāetu</td>
<td>radatu</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>ins</b></td>
<td>rāeco</td>
<td>radaco</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Other"><font color="#803800">Other pronouns and determiners</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>rete</b></td>
<td><i>adj</i> </td>
<td>which </td>
<td><b>itas</b></td>
<td><i>n </i></td>
<td>this one </td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>īlo</b></td>
<td><i>adj</i></td>
<td>this </td>
<td><b>totas</b></td>
<td><i>n</i></td>
<td>that one</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>oêlo</b></td>
<td><i>adj</i></td>
<td>that </td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>seri</b></td>
<td><i>adj</i></td>
<td>every </td>
<td><b>rebanco</b></td>
<td></td>
<td>why</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>āno</b></td>
<td><i>adj</i></td>
<td>some </td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>mûse</b></td>
<td><i>adj</i></td>
<td>many </td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>bizāno</b></td>
<td><i>adj</i></td>
<td>none, no</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>rēdue</b></td>
<td><i>loc</i></td>
<td>where </td>
<td><b>rēda</b></td>
<td></td>
<td>when</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>idue</b></td>
<td><i>loc</i></td>
<td>here </td>
<td><b>ida</b></td>
<td></td>
<td>now</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>ecui</b></td>
<td><i>loc</i></td>
<td>there </td>
<td><b>êca</b></td>
<td></td>
<td>then</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td><b>maidue</b></td>
<td><i>loc</i></td>
<td>nowhere</td>
<td><b>maida</b></td>
<td></td>
<td>never</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>oniu</b></td>
<td><i>n</i></td>
<td>everyone/everything </td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>āneca</b></td>
<td><i>n</i></td>
<td>someone/something </td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>māeca</b></td>
<td><i>n</i></td>
<td>no one/nothing</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>The words marked <i>adj</i> are declined as regular adjectives; those marked <i>n</i> as regular nouns.
<p>The words marked <i>loc</i> are locatives; to form the dative forms ('whither' etc.) replace the final vowel with -<b>nu</b> (<b>rēdunu</b> etc.); to form the ablative ('whence' etc.), replace the final vowel with -<b>ta</b> (<b>rēduta</b> etc.).
<p>The remaining words are adverbs, and are invariable.
<p>
<h3><a name="Verbal"><font color="#803800">Verbal morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The Cuêzi verb is enormously expressive. The price paid is a plethora of tenses and forms.
<p>Verbs must agree with their subjects in <b>number</b> and <b>person</b>. By way of compensation, pronominal subjects may be dropped.
<p>Besides this, each verb form indicates the following distinctions:
<ul>
<li>active or passive <b>voice</b>
<li>definite or remote <b>mood</b>
<li>past anterior, past, present, or future <b>tense</b>
<li>perfect or imperfect <b>aspect</b>
<li>there are <b>causative</b> and <b>inceptive</b> forms of each verb
</ul>
If you're counting, that makes up to 576 distinct lexical forms for each verb.
<p>In addition, there are five separate conjugations (patterns of inflection). There is no single lexical form which is different in each of them, so they are traditionally simply numbered from 1 to 5.
<p>Sound changes have created alternations for many verbs; note <b>rīx</b>- vs. <b>rīc</b>- and <b>clāg</b>- vs. <b>clāy</b>- in the sample conjugations below. The diachronic rule is perhaps simplest: <b>t</b> --> <b>s</b>, <b>c</b> --> <b>s</b>, <b>g</b> --> <b>y</b> before <b>i</b> and <b>e</b>,<b> x</b> --> <b>c</b> before <b>i</b>. The synchronic rules are a bit more complicated. Consonants in clusters were unaffected; but the protecting consonant may have been lost; we see this below in <i>bêti</i> (from earlier *<i>bektit</i>). The lost consonant is often commemorated by a circumflexed vowel. Finally, the present distribution of <b>i</b> and <b>e</b> is not necessarily that of the proto-language, so that softenings may not seem to occur in the right place. The lexicon indicates verbs with alternations.
<h3><a name="Active"><font color="#803800">Active definite perfect</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<h4><font color="#803800">Present definite</font></h4>
The present and past definite have distinct endings, generally different between conjugations. In the present, conjugations 2 and 3 are identical except in the 3p; 4 and 5 are identical except in the 3s. and 3p.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>person</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>lūv-āo</td>
<td>rīx-āi</td>
<td>utān-āi</td>
<td>bêt-āu</td>
<td>clāg-āu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>lūv-ēo</td>
<td>rīx-ēi</td>
<td>utān-ēi</td>
<td>bêt-ēu</td>
<td>clāy-ēu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>lūv-e</td>
<td>rīx-e</td>
<td>utān-e</td>
<td>bêt-i</td>
<td>clāy-e</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>lūv-ōmo</td>
<td>rīx-āmo</td>
<td>utān-āmo</td>
<td>bêt-umo</td>
<td>clāg-umo</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>lūv-ōzi</td>
<td>rīx-āzi</td>
<td>utān-āzi</td>
<td>bêt-uzi</td>
<td>clāg-uzi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>lūv-ota</td>
<td>rīx-ota</td>
<td>utān-itu</td>
<td>bêt-itu</td>
<td>clāg-uta</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="PastDefinite"><font color="#803800">Past definite</font></a></h4>
Endings are identical in the 2nd and 3rd conjugations, and in the 4th and 5th. The 1s and 2s endings are identical. If context does not disambiguate, it is more common to insert 'I' rather than 'thou'.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>person</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>lūv-iu</td>
<td>rīc-io</td>
<td>utān-io</td>
<td>bêt-ie</td>
<td>clāy-ie</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>lūv-iu</td>
<td>rīc-io</td>
<td>utān-io</td>
<td>bêt-ie</td>
<td>clāy-ie</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>lūv-ū</td>
<td>rīx-ā</td>
<td>utān-ā</td>
<td>bêt-ē</td>
<td>clāy-ē</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>lūv-ūmo</td>
<td>rīx-ōmo</td>
<td>utān-ōmo</td>
<td>bêt-ēmo</td>
<td>clāy-ēmo</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>lūv-ūzi</td>
<td>rīx-ōzi</td>
<td>utān-ōzi</td>
<td>bêt-ēzi</td>
<td>clāy-ēzi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>lūv-ūta</td>
<td>rīc-ītu</td>
<td>utān-ītu</td>
<td>bêt-ītu</td>
<td>clāy-ītu</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><font color="#803800">Past anterior definite</font></h4>
The past anterior forms are composed of the verb root + <b>er</b> (<b>ir</b> in 4) + the past endings.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>person</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>lūv-eriu</td>
<td>rīx-erio</td>
<td>utān-erio</td>
<td>bêt-irie</td>
<td>clāy-erie</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>lūv-eriu</td>
<td>rīx-erio</td>
<td>utān-erio</td>
<td>bêt-irie</td>
<td>clāy-erie</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>lūv-erū</td>
<td>rīx-erā</td>
<td>utān-erā</td>
<td>bêt-irē</td>
<td>clāy-erē</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>lūv-erūmo</td>
<td>rīx-erōmo</td>
<td>utān-erōmo</td>
<td>bêt-irēmo</td>
<td>clāy-erēmo</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>lūv-erūzi</td>
<td>rīx-erōzi</td>
<td>utān-erōzi</td>
<td>bêt-irēzi</td>
<td>clāy-erēzi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>lūv-erūta</td>
<td>rīx-erītu</td>
<td>utān-erītu</td>
<td>bêt-irītu</td>
<td>clāy-erītu</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><font color="#803800">Future/imperative definite</font></h4>
The future forms are composed of the root + <b>il</b> (<b>al</b> in 2) + the present tense endings.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>person</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>lūv-ilāo</td>
<td>rīx-alāi</td>
<td>utān-ilāi</td>
<td>bêt-ilāu</td>
<td>clāy-ilāu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>lūv-ilēo</td>
<td>rīx-alēi</td>
<td>utān-ilēi</td>
<td>bêt-ilēu</td>
<td>clāy-ilēu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>lūv-ile</td>
<td>rīx-ale</td>
<td>utān-ile</td>
<td>bêt-ili</td>
<td>clāy-ile</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>lūv-ilōmo</td>
<td>rīx-alāmo</td>
<td>utān-ilāmo</td>
<td>bêt-ilumo</td>
<td>clāy-ilumo</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>lūv-ilōzi</td>
<td>rīx-alāzi</td>
<td>utān-ilāzi</td>
<td>bêt-iluzi</td>
<td>clāy-iluzi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>lūv-ilota</td>
<td>rīx-alota</td>
<td>utān-ilitu</td>
<td>bêt-ilitu</td>
<td>clāy-iluta</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="remote"><font color="#803800">Active remote perfect</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The remote tenses are formed by adding an infix (-<b>et</b>- for conjugations 1, 4, 5, changing to -<b>es</b>- before <b>e</b> or <b>i</b>; -<b>in</b>- for conjugations 2 and 3) between the verb root and the personal endings.
<p>The -<b>in</b>- infix derives from *<i>em</i> in proto-Eastern; for this reason it never triggers the <b>x </b>--><b> c</b> alternation.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8"><td colspan=6><b>Present remote</b></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>person</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>lūv-etāo</td>
<td>rīx-ināi</td>
<td>utān-ināi</td>
<td>bêt-etāu</td>
<td>clāy-etāu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>lūv-esēo</td>
<td>rīx-inēi</td>
<td>utān-inēi</td>
<td>bêt-esēu</td>
<td>clāy-esēu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>lūv-ese</td>
<td>rīx-ine</td>
<td>utān-ine</td>
<td>bêt-esi</td>
<td>clāy-ese</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>lūv-etōmo</td>
<td>rīx-ināmo</td>
<td>utān-ināmo</td>
<td>bêt-etumo</td>
<td>clāy-etumo</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>lūv-etōzi</td>
<td>rīx-ināzi</td>
<td>utān-ināzi</td>
<td>bêt-etuzi</td>
<td>clāy-etuzi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>lūv-etota</td>
<td>rīx-inota</td>
<td>utān-initu</td>
<td>bêt-esitu</td>
<td>clāy-etuta</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8"><td colspan=6><b>Past remote</b></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>person</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>lūv-esiu</td>
<td>rīx-inio</td>
<td>utān-inio</td>
<td>bêt-esie</td>
<td>clāy-esie</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>lūv-esiu</td>
<td>rīx-inio</td>
<td>utān-inio</td>
<td>bêt-esie</td>
<td>clāy-esie</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>lūv-etū</td>
<td>rīx-inā</td>
<td>utān-inā</td>
<td>bêt-esē</td>
<td>clāy-esē</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>lūv-etūmo</td>
<td>rīx-inōmo</td>
<td>utān-inōmo</td>
<td>bêt-esēmo</td>
<td>clāy-esēmo</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>lūv-etūzi</td>
<td>rīx-inōzi</td>
<td>utān-inōzi</td>
<td>bêt-esēzi</td>
<td>clāy-esēzi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>lūv-etūta</td>
<td>rīx-inītu</td>
<td>utān-inītu</td>
<td>bêt-esītu</td>
<td>clāy-esītu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8"><td colspan=6><b>Past anterior remote</b></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>person</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>lūv-eresiu</td>
<td>rīx-erinio</td>
<td>utān-erinio</td>
<td>bêt-iresie</td>
<td>clāy-eresie</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td>etc.
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8"><td colspan=6><b>Future/imperative remote</b></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>person</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>lūv-iletāo</td>
<td>rīx-alināi</td>
<td>utān-ilināi</td>
<td>bêt-iletāu</td>
<td>clāy-iletāu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td>etc.
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="imperfect"><font color="#803800">Active imperfect tenses</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The imperfect tenses are formed from the perfect by adding a final -<b>r </b>(-<b>re</b>) in the 3s.). In all but present and past definite, the 1p -<b>mo</b>- ending changes to -<b>bo</b>-. Here are the forms for the verb <b>rīxa</b>:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Definite</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>rīx-āir</td>
<td>rīc-ior</td>
<td>rīx-erior</td>
<td>rīx-alāir</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>rīx-ēir</td>
<td>rīc-ior</td>
<td>rīx-erior</td>
<td>rīx-alēir</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>rīx-ere</td>
<td>rīx-āre</td>
<td>rīx-erāre</td>
<td>rīx-alere</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>rīx-āmor</td>
<td>rīx-ōmor</td>
<td>rīx-erōbor</td>
<td>rīx-alābor</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>rīx-āzir</td>
<td>rīx-ōzir</td>
<td>rīx-erōzir</td>
<td>rīx-alāzir</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>rīx-otar</td>
<td>rīc-ītur</td>
<td>rīx-erītur</td>
<td>rīx-alotar</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Remote</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>rīx-ināir</td>
<td>rīx-inior</td>
<td>rīx-erinior</td>
<td>rīx-alināir</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>rīx-inēir</td>
<td>rīx-inior</td>
<td>rīx-erinior</td>
<td>rīx-alinēir</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>rīx-inere</td>
<td>rīx-ināre</td>
<td>rīx-erināre</td>
<td>rīx-alinere</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>rīx-inābor</td>
<td>rīx-inōbor</td>
<td>rīx-erinōbor </td>
<td>rīx-alinābor</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>rīx-ināzir</td>
<td>rīx-inōzir</td>
<td>rīx-erinōzir</td>
<td>rīx-alināzir</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>rīx-inotar</td>
<td>rīx-inītur</td>
<td>rīx-erinītur</td>
<td>rīx-alinotar</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Passive"><font color="#803800">Passive voice</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The passive voice must have been formed in proto-Karazi by prefixing the verb with <b>o</b>- and adding -<b>l</b> to the end. However, the prefix replaced any initial vowel (<b>usāle</b> --> <b>osālel</b>); while the final -<b>l</b> suppressed the final vowel in the singular, and the penultimate vowel in the plural forms; and this in turn triggered some reinterpretation. The result is that the passive endings are uniform across all conjugations, and differ somewhat from the active endings.
<p>(No other Eastern language family has a morphological passive, and no other forms any tense in quite this way; for this reason linguists are unwilling to trace the Cuêzi passive back to proto-Eastern. )
<p>Note that the -<b>sal</b>/-<b>sul</b>/-<b>tal</b>/-<b>tul</b> endings change to -<b>zal</b>/-<b>zul</b>/-<b>dal</b>/-<b>dul</b> after a voiced consonant; also note the significant simplifications in the remote tenses (compare active <b>rīxerinōmo</b> 'we had perhaps seen' with <b>orīxerimul</b> 'we had perhaps been seen').
<p>To form the passive imperfect tenses, replace the final -<b>l</b> with -<b>r</b>.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Definite</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-āl</td>
<td>o-rīc-il</td>
<td>o-rīx-eril</td>
<td>o-rīx-alāl</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-ēl</td>
<td>o-rīc-il</td>
<td>o-rīx-eril</td>
<td>o-rīx-alēl</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-el</td>
<td>o-rīx-āl</td>
<td>o-rīx-erāl</td>
<td>o-rīx-alel</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-mal</td>
<td>o-rīx-mul</td>
<td>o-rīx-ermul</td>
<td>o-rīx-almal</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-sal</td>
<td>o-rīx-sul</td>
<td>o-rīx-erzul</td>
<td>o-rīx-alzal</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-tal</td>
<td>o-rīx-tul</td>
<td>o-rīx-erdul</td>
<td>o-rīx-aldal</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Remote</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-ināl</td>
<td>o-rīx-inil</td>
<td>o-rīx-erinil</td>
<td>o-rīx-alināl</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-inēl</td>
<td>o-rīx-inil</td>
<td>o-rīx-erinil</td>
<td>o-rīx-alinēl</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-inel</td>
<td>o-rīx-ināl</td>
<td>o-rīx-erināl</td>
<td>o-rīx-alinel</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-imal</td>
<td>o-rīx-imul</td>
<td>o-rīx-erimul </td>
<td>o-rīx-alimal</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-izal</td>
<td>o-rīx-izul</td>
<td>o-rīx-erizul</td>
<td>o-rīx-alizal</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-idal</td>
<td>o-rīx-idul</td>
<td>o-rīx-eridul</td>
<td>o-rīx-alidal</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Definite imperfect</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-ār</td>
<td>o-rīc-ir</td>
<td>o-rīx-erir</td>
<td>o-rīx-alār</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td>etc.
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Remote imperfect</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-inār</td>
<td>o-rīx-inir</td>
<td>o-rīx-erinir</td>
<td>o-rīx-alinār</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td>etc.
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Causative"><font color="#803800">Causative</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The causative is perhaps best seen as a separate parameter of inflection, like the passive voice (and like the passive, uniform across all conjugations). (Some grammarians treat it, however, as a derived lexical item, with a distinctive conjugation.)
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Definite</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>rīx-ū</td>
<td>rīx-ebū</td>
<td>rīx-erū</td>
<td>rīx-alū</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>rīx-ū</td>
<td>rīx-ebū</td>
<td>rīx-erū</td>
<td>rīx-alū</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>rīx-u</td>
<td>rīx-ebu</td>
<td>rīx-eru</td>
<td>rīx-alu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>rīc-īmo</td>
<td>rīx-ebīmo</td>
<td>rīx-erīmo</td>
<td>rīx-alīmo</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>rīc-īzi</td>
<td>rīx-ebīzi</td>
<td>rīx-erīzi</td>
<td>rīx-alīzi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>rīc-īzu</td>
<td>rīx-ebīzu</td>
<td>rīx-erīzu</td>
<td>rīx-alīzu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Remote</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>rīx-etū</td>
<td>rīx-esebū</td>
<td>rīx-eserū</td>
<td>rīx-etalū</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td>etc.
</table></blockquote>
<p>The active imperfect is formed by adding -<b>r</b> (3s -<b>re</b>) to the perfect forms; the passive by prefixing <b>o</b>- and suffixing -<b>l</b> (perfect) or -<b>r</b> (imperfect). The 1s forms follow.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Definite</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b><u></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
<td></u><b><u></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>act imp</b></td>
<td>rīx-ūr</td>
<td>rīx-ebūr</td>
<td>rīx-erūr</td>
<td>rīx-alūr</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pass perf</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-ūl</td>
<td>o-rīx-ebūl</td>
<td>o-rīx-erūl</td>
<td>o-rīx-alūl</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pass imp</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-ūr</td>
<td>o-rīx-ebūr</td>
<td>o-rīx-erūr</td>
<td>o-rīx-alūr</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Remote</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b><u></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
<td></u><b><u></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>act imp</b></td>
<td>rīx-etūr</td>
<td>rīx-esebūr</td>
<td>rīx-eserūr</td>
<td>rīx-etalūr</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pass perf</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-etūl</td>
<td>o-rīx-esebūl</td>
<td>o-rīx-eserūl</td>
<td>o-rīx-etalūl</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>pass imp</b></td>
<td>o-rīx-etūr</td>
<td>o-rīx-esebūr</td>
<td>o-rīx-eserūr</td>
<td>o-rīx-etalūr</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Inceptive"><font color="#803800">Inceptive</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The inceptive is formed using the prefix <b>ba</b>-. The final vowel is also removed from the personal endings, if it's preceded by another vowel. Examples:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Definite</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b><u></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>ba-rīx-ā</td>
<td>ba-rīc-i</td>
<td>ba-rīx-eri</td>
<td>ba-rīx-alā</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>ba-rīx-ē</td>
<td>ba-rīc-i</td>
<td>ba-rīx-eri</td>
<td>ba-rīx-alē</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>ba-rīx-e</td>
<td>ba-rīx-ā</td>
<td>ba-rīx-erā</td>
<td>ba-rīx-ale</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>ba-rīx-āmo</td>
<td>ba-rīx-ōmo</td>
<td>ba-rīx-erōmo </td>
<td>ba-rīx-alāmo</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>ba-rīx-āzi</td>
<td>ba-rīx-ōzi</td>
<td>ba-rīx-erōzi</td>
<td>ba-rīx-alāzi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>ba-rīx-ota</td>
<td>ba-rīc-ītu</td>
<td>ba-rīx-erītu</td>
<td>ba-rīx-alota</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8">
<td colspan=5><b>Remote</b>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b><u></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>past ant</td>
<td>fut </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>ba-rīx-inā</td>
<td>ba-rīx-ini</td>
<td>ba-rīx-erini</td>
<td>ba-rīx-alinā</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td>etc.
</table></blockquote>
<p>The active imperfect is formed by adding -<b>r</b> (3s -<b>re</b>) to the perfect forms (<i>barīxā</i> --> <i>barīxār</i> etc.). The passive is formed using the ordinary passive endings (e.g. <i>obarīxmal</i> 'We are beginning to be seen').
<h3><a name="Infinitive"><font color="#803800">Infinitive</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
There are active and passive infinitives, as well as infinitives for the causative and inceptive forms. The active infinitives are formed with the following endings; the circumflexes in the first three conjugations disappear if there is a long vowel in the root. (In compounds, only the last root counts: <i>mētulerê</i> 'analyze' is OK because the final root is <i>lerê</i>.)
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5 </b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b></td>
<td>-ê</td>
<td>-â</td>
<td>-ê</td>
<td>-i</td>
<td>-e</b></td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td></td>
<td>lūv-e</td>
<td>rīx-a</td>
<td>utān-e</td>
<td>bêt-i</td>
<td>clāy-e</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>The passive infinitive is, for all conjugations, <b>o</b>- + the verb root + -<b>i</b> or -<b>î</b>: thus <i>olūvi</i> 'to be loved', <i>obêtî</i> 'to be changed'.
<p>The causative infinitive takes a final -<b>û</b> (-<b>u</b> if the root has a long vowel): <i>lūvu</i> 'to cause to be loved'; <i>lanû</i> 'to cause (someone) to think'.
<p>The inceptive infinitive is simply <b>ba</b>- plus the ordinary infinitive: <i>balūve</i> 'begin to love', <i>balanê</i> 'start thinking.'
<p>The passive infinitive can be turned into an inceptive by infixing -<b>ba</b>-: <i>obalūvi</i> 'to begin to be loved'.
<h3><a name="Participles"><font color="#803800">Participles</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The <b>active participle</b> is composed of <b>e</b> + the verb root + -<b>eto</b>: e.g. <i>elūveto</i> 'loving'; <i>esaleseto</i> 'jumping'. The<b> e</b>- is instead <b>am</b>- before <b>b</b>: <i>ambriseto</i> 'dancing'. The <b>e</b>- is added to any root vowel: <i>êcuri</i> --> <i>ēcureto</i> 'accusing'.
<p>The <b>passive participle</b> is composed of <b>o</b> + the verb root + -<b>elo</b>; for example <i>olūvelo</i> 'loved', <i>obêtelo</i> 'changed'. We see <b>om</b>- before <b>b</b>: <i>ombriselo</i> 'danced'. The <b>o</b>- replaces any initial vowel in the root.
<p>The <b>causative participle</b> is composed of <b>e</b> + the verb root + <b>-ūzo</b>: e.g. <i>elūvūzo</i> 'causing to love', <i>ebodūzo</i> 'filling'.
<p>The participles are declined as ordinary adjectives of the first declension.
<p>As there is a separate passive voice, there is no need to use the passive participle predicatively: one says <b>Antāu olūvel</b> 'Antāu is loved', not <b>Antāu olūvele ê</b>. Likewise the imperfect tenses must be used rather than using the active participle as a predicate.
<p>The <b>agentive</b> ('one who does' form) is <b>e</b> + the verb root + -<b>as</b> (m.) or -<b>ei</b> (f.), the result being a regular noun; thus <i>elūvas</i> 'lover', <i>evissas</i> 'one who knows'. Again, it's <b>am</b>- before a <b>b</b>: <i>ambrisas</i> 'dancer'. A verb which suffers root alternations will have different masculine and feminine forms: <i>pīsi</i> drink --> <i>epītas, epīsei</i>.
<p>There is no corresponding passive form; but the passive participle can be used substantively (retaining its adjectival declension). The same can be said for the causative.
<h3><a name="Tobe"><font color="#803800">To be</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The verb <b>esc</b> is irregular.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#D0D0A8"><td></td>
<td colspan=2><b>Definite</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>Remote</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>Imperfect</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past </td>
<td>pres</td>
<td>past</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>I</b></td>
<td>sāi</td>
<td>sio</td>
<td>zetāu</td>
<td>zesie</td>
<td>fuāi</td>
<td>fuio</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>thou</b></td>
<td>sēi</td>
<td>sio</td>
<td>zesēu</td>
<td>zesie</td>
<td>fuēi</td>
<td>fuio</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>he/she</b></td>
<td>ê</td>
<td>sā</td>
<td>zesê</td>
<td>zesē</td>
<td>fue</td>
<td>fuā</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>we</b></td>
<td>zāmo</td>
<td>sōmo</td>
<td>zetumo</td>
<td>zesēmo</td>
<td>fuāmo</td>
<td>fuōmo</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>you</b></td>
<td>zāzi</td>
<td>sōzi</td>
<td>zetuzi</td>
<td>zesēzi</td>
<td>fuāzi</td>
<td>fuōzi</td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><b>they</b></td>
<td>zota</td>
<td>sītu</td>
<td>zesitu</td>
<td>zesītu</td>
<td>fuota</td>
<td>fuītu</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>In the other tenses <b>esc</b> acts like several verbs at once (which is in fact partly due to it being inherited from two proto-Eastern verbs, *<i>esam</i> and *<i>fuam</i>.
<ul>
<li> In the remaining <b><i>perfect definite</b></i> tenses, it's conjugated as if it were <i>zâ</i> (2nd conj.): <i>zerio</i> 'I had been', <i>zalāi</i> 'I will be', etc.
<li> In the <b><i>perfect remote</b></i> tenses, it's conjugated as if it were <i>zi</i> (4th conj.): <i>zetāu</i> 'I may be', <i>zesie</i> 'I might have been', etc. (But note <i>zesê</i> above.)
<li> In the <b><i>imperfect</b></i>, definite and remote, it's conjugated as if it were the perfect forms of <i>fuâ</i> (2nd conj.): <i>fuāi</i> 'I am being', <i>fuio</i> 'I was being', <i>fuināi</i> 'I may be being', <i>fuinio</i> 'I might have been being', etc.
<li> There is no <b><i>passive</b></i> voice.
<li> The <b><i>causative</b></i> is regular (<i>ezû</i> 'cause to be').
<li> The <b><i>inceptive</b></i> (<i>baesc</i> 'begin to be') is formed by adding <i>ba-</i> to the appropriate form of <i>esc</i>: <i>basāi</i> 'I begin to be', <i>bafuā</i> 'it was beginning to be'.
<li> Its present participle is <i>ēzeto</i>, and the agentive is <i>ēzas</i>.</ul>
The <b>derived verbs</b> <i>ties</i> 'can' and <i>goes</i> 'occur' conjugate like <i>esc</i>. The rule is: prefix <i>ti</i>- or <i>go</i>- to the appropriate form of <i>esc</i>, but after inceptive <i>ba-.</i> Thus <i>tisāi</i> 'I can'; <i>goê</i> 'it occurs', <i>tizesēzi</i> 'they were perhaps able to', <i>bagozerā</i> 'it had begun to occur'.
<h3><a name="Unusualv"><font color="#803800">Unusual verbs</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Some mention should be made of the 'one-letter' verbs <b>dâ</b> 'give', <b>fi</b> 'do', <b>mê</b> 'have', and <b>bâ</b> 'put'. They are quite regular, but having so little in the way of root, their lexical forms are not always recognized by the student.
<blockquote>
<p><b>de</b> <i>he gives </i>
<br><b>dītu</b> <i>they gave</i>
<br><b>milāo</b> <i>I will have</i>
<br><b>bāre</b> <i>he was always putting it</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The passive of 'have', <b>omî</b>, has the meaning 'there is':
<blockquote>
<p><b>Araunas arevatu omel. </b>
<br><i>There is an eagle in the tree.</i>
<p><b>Dima xuvi omerdul ida-nô omāl ane. </b>
<br><i>There had been two eggs, and now there was one.
</blockquote>
<p></i>There are two verbs with only passive forms: <b>ogonî</b> 'to be on fire' and <b>onî</b> 'to be born'. Besides the absence of active forms, they're regular.
<h2><a name="4"><font color="#803800">4 Derivational morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
When a suffix begins with a consonant, the combination form of the root should be used (e.g. for <b>mūra</b>, <b>mūre</b>-); otherwise, the root alone (<b>mūr</b>-).
<h3><a name="Nominalizers"><font color="#803800">Nominalizers</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
State or abstraction: -<b>āuas</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>namo</b> lord --> <b>namāuas</b> lordliness, majesty
<br> <b>ilenda</b> virgin --> <b>ilendāuas</b> virginity
<br> <b>pomas</b> man --> <b>pomāuas</b> manliness
</blockquote>
<p>Nominalization of common verbs: in -<b>eyas </b>or<b> -ias</b>:
<blockquote>
<p> <b>aviê</b> die --> <b>aviēyas</b> death
<br> <b>barīdi</b> marry --> <b>barīdias</b> marriage
</blockquote>
<p>or -<b>āu</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>duli</b> must --> <b>dulāu</b> duty
</blockquote>
<p>Process or act: -<b>eca</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>lāda</b> --> <b>lādeca</b> going
<br> <b>barīdi</b> --> <b>barīdeca</b> wedding
</blockquote>
<p>Result: -<b>â</b> with doubled final consonant; or -<b>da</b> after another suffix:
<blockquote>
<b>taige</b> live --> <b>taiggâ</b> life
<br> <b>brisê</b> dance --> <b>brissâ</b> dance
<br> <b>pisi</b> write --> <b>pissâ</b> letter
<br> <b>risoni</b> draw --> <b>risonda</b> drawing
</blockquote>
<p>Process, state, or result: -<b>anavas</b>, similar to our -tion:
<blockquote>
<b>vissê</b> know --> <b>vissanavas</b> knowledge
<br> <b>duntrâcê</b> judge --> <b>duntrâcanavas</b> judgment, trial
</blockquote>
<p>Adjectives commonly nominalize with <b>īras</b> or -<b>de</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>ziene</b> fertile --> <b>zienīras</b> fertility
<br> <b>same</b> bright --> <b>samīras</b> brightness
<br> <b>ailue</b> lithe --> <b>ailuede</b> gracefulness
<br> <b>lalei</b> young --> <b>laleide</b> youth
</blockquote>
<p>One who does: m. -<b>as</b>, f. -<b>ei</b> with initial <b>e</b>-. See "Participles" above for morphological oddities.
<blockquote>
<b>lūvī</b> love --> <b>elūvas</b>, <b>elūvei</b> lover
<br><b>duntrâcê</b> judge --> <b>eduntrâcas</b>, <b>eduntrâcei</b> judge
<br> <b>brisê</b> dance --> <b>ambrisas</b>, <b>ambrisei</b> dancer
<br> <b>pīsi</b> drink --> <b>epītas</b>, <b>epīsei</b> drinker
</blockquote>
<p>One who has: -<b>ciu.</b>
<blockquote>
<b>rīda</b> wife --> <b>rīdeciu</b> husband
<br> <b>pûtas</b> stomach --> <b>pûticiu</b> pregnant woman
<br><b>namo</b> lord --> <b>bisnamociu</b> rōnin, lordless soldier
<br><b>dunas</b> movement --> <b>duniciu</b> animal
</blockquote>
<p>Descendant: -<b>go</b>. The resulting noun can be used for persons of either sex.
<blockquote>
<b>eressâ</b> west --> <b>Eressego</b> Western barbarian
<br> <b>Amnās</b> Satan --> <b>amnigo</b> demon
</blockquote>
<p>Inhabitant or follower: -<b>ilo</b>. Again, the derived noun can be used for either sex.
<blockquote>
<b>Munxeas</b> --> <b>Munxesilo</b> Munkhâshi
<br> <b>Uâsa</b> --> <b>Uâsilo</b> follower of Uâsa
</blockquote>
<p>Substance (with a particular property): -<b>das</b> (declined like <i>āetas</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>mavoro</b> black --> <b>mavordas</b> iron
<br> <b>dēne</b> breast --> <b>dēnedas</b> milk
</blockquote>
<p>Material (used for or accomplishing a particular action): -<b>on</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>dei</b> use --> <b>deōn</b> material
<br> <b>olue</b> hold --> <b>oluon</b> buttress
</blockquote>
<p>Tool: -<b>siu</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>tōura</b> pour --> <b>tōuresiu</b> cup
<br><b>sīxego</b> wine --> <b>sīxisiu</b> wineglass
</blockquote>
<p>Place: <b>a</b> + root + -<b>r</b>, lengthening the previous vowel:
<blockquote>
<b>ziene</b> fertile --> <b>azienār</b> forest
<br> <b>zimbi</b> Ažimbean --> <b>Azimbār</b> Ažimbea
<br> <b>rizas</b> grain --> <b>arizār</b> granary
</blockquote>
<p>Diminutive: -<b>īll</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>ilenda</b> maiden --> <b>ilendīlla</b> girl, <i>señorita
<br></i> <b>xudas</b> hole --> <b>xudīllas</b> little hole
</blockquote>
<p>Fraction: -<b>gāu</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>bāor</b> four --> <b>bargāu</b> quarter
<br> <b>duna</b> two --> <b>dunagāu</b> half
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Adjectivizers"><font color="#803800">Adjectivizers</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Related adjective: -<b>oro</b> or -<b>te</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>mēliye</b> girl --> <b>meliyoro</b> girlish
<br> <b>narras</b> kingdom --> <b>narroro</b> kingly
<br> <b>pomas</b> man --> <b>pomoro</b> masculine
<p> <b>fūca</b> color --> <b>fūcate</b> colorful
<br> <b>gobrinâ</b> understand --> <b>gobrinte</b> compassionate
<br> <b>solci</b> have sex --> <b>solcite</b> sexual
<br> <b>teras</b> miracle --> <b>terate</b> miraculous
</blockquote>
<p>Like: -<b>llê</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>ilenda</b> maiden --> <b>ilendellê</b> maidenly
<br> <b>moêle</b> woman --> <b>moêlillê</b> womanly
<br> <b>taiggâ</b> life --> <b>taiggellê</b> lifelike
</blockquote>
<p>Un-: <b>bi</b>- + root + -<b>uo</b> (or just -<b>o</b> after another suffix):
<blockquote>
<b>creyê</b> eat --> <b>bicreguo</b> inedible
<br> <b>tolê</b> bear --> <b>bitoluo</b> unbearable
<br> <b>nūmicolê</b> pious --> <b>binūmicolo</b> impious
<br> <b>rēne</b> count --> <b>birēnuo</b> uncountable
</blockquote>
<p>Full of: -<b>bodê</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>diazami</b> promise --> <b>diazambodê</b> untrustworthy
<br> <b>mīsia</b> joy --> <b>misibodê</b> joyful
</blockquote>
<p>Making: -<b>boe</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>moêle</b> woman --> <b>moêliboe</b> effeminate
<br> <b>ridi</b> laugh --> <b>ridiboe</b> comic
</blockquote>
<p>Lover of: -<b>colê</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>cūrita</b> talk --> <b>cūritecolê</b> talkative
<br> <b>dulāu</b> duty --> <b>dulāucolê</b> dutiful
<br> <b>sīxe</b> grape --> <b>sīxicolê</b> wine-loving
</blockquote>
<p>Possibility: <b>oti</b>- plus final -<b>ê</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>creyê</b> eat --> <b>oticreyê</b> edible
<br><b> vissê</b> know --> <b>otivissê</b> knowable
<br> <b>lerê </b>see --> <b>otilerê</b> visible
</blockquote>
<p>Ordinal (numbers above four): -<b>ge</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>pâtu</b> five --> <b>pâtuge</b> fifth
<br><b>dêt</b> ten --> <b>dêdege</b> tenth
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Verbalizers"><font color="#803800">Verbalizers</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Inceptive: <b>ba</b>-. (Already covered under <i>Morphology</i>.)
<blockquote>
<b>rīda</b> wife --> <b>barīdi</b> marry
<br> <b>pomas</b> man --> <b>bapomi</b> become a man
</blockquote>
<p>Repetition or reaction: <b>sû</b>- (<b>sun</b>- before vowel):
<blockquote>
<b>fi</b> do --> <b>sûfi</b> resume
<br> <b>missê</b> say --> <b>sûmissê</b> respond
<br> <b>utāne</b> come --> <b>sunutāne</b> return
</blockquote>
<p>Causative from adjective: <b>e</b> + root + <b>û</b>. These become defective verbs, with causative forms only.
<blockquote>
<b>fōre</b> loud --> <b>efōru</b> make louder
<br> <b>aviê</b> dead --> <b>eviû</b> deaden
</blockquote>
<p>Instrumental use: -<b>oni</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>risi</b> reed --> <b>risoni</b> draw
</blockquote>
<p>Associated verb: -<b>ivê</b> (1st conjugation):
<blockquote>
<b>cranas</b> shame --> <b>cranivê</b> shame, rebuke
<br> <b>brose</b> second --> <b>brosivê</b> repeat
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Names"><font color="#803800">Names</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Till late in their history, Cuzeians did not have a set of canonical names, but invented them as needed. Almost any noun which appealed to the parents could be chosen; except that masculine nouns were reserved for men, feminine for women; neuter nouns were available for either sex. Examples: <b>Alaldas</b> (star), <b>Banimu</b> (voyager), <b>Caumēliye</b> (sweetheart), <b>Dulāu</b> (duty), <b>Eteîa</b> (flower), <b>Niōre</b> (beauty), <b>Oluon</b> (buttress), <b>Tisāti</b> (waterspray), <b>Siyise</b>, <b>Yoreta</b> (types of flower), <b>Zienīras</b> (fertility).
<p>Adjectives could be turned into nouns by adding -<b>os</b> or -<b>io</b> (m.), -<b>a</b> or -<b>ē</b> (f.): <b>Ambrisio</b> (dance), <b>Bāuros</b> (old), <b>Beretos</b> (green), <b>Celōusio</b>, <b>Leretē</b> (clever), <b>Misiē</b> (joyous), <b>Sarēina</b> (easterner), <b>Zeilisio</b> (lively).
<p>A very few names have no contemporary derivation, such as <b>Arrasos</b>, <b>Oromo</b>, <b>Urisāma</b>. A few others have unusual forms, but contain recognizable roots: <b>Denūra</b> (from <i>dēne</i> 'breast'), <b>Einātu</b> (from <i>eine</i> 'first'), <b>Samīrex</b> (from <i>same</i> 'bright')
<p>In later times the Cuzeians had accumulated such a stock of names that people were usually named after an ancestor or famous figure, rather than being given an invented name.
<p>The lexicon includes a number of names-- mostly those which became common names in the Plain; it is by no means exhaustive.
<h2><a name="Syntax"><font color="#803800">Syntax</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
<h3><a name="Word"><font color="#803800">Word order</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
As a fully inflected language, Cuêzi has free word order-- which is to say, of course, that rules apply, but not those of English.
<p>The unmarked word order in Cuêzi is <b>SOV</b>. Within a noun phrase, nouns precede adjectives, genitives, and subordinate clauses. However, these are only general tendencies. A random rearrangement of the words in a Cuêzi sentence would be perfectly grammatical.
<p>As in Caďinor, the <b>topic</b> of the sentence (the old information) is placed first, followed by the <b>comment</b> (the new information). This rule is followed perhaps even more rigidly in Cuêzi than in Caďinor, perhaps because the Cuêzi passive allows free topicalization of almost any parameter.
<p>Cuêzi, like Latin or Russian, has no articles. Since the topic is invariably placed first, there is no need for a separate word to indicate whether the reference is definite.
<p>Note the pragmatic implications of each of the following sentences, each a translation of 'Oluon loves the servant-girl':
<blockquote>
<b>Oluon ecivea lūve.</b>
<br><i>active, SOV; topic = Oluon</i>
<br>Answers the question, "Who does Oluon love?"
<br>Also serves as unmarked order-- e.g. if the entire sentence is hot news.
<p><b>Ecivea Oluon lūve. </b>
<br><i>active, OSV; topic = servant</i>
<br>Answer to "Who loves the servant?"
<p><b>Ecivei [Oluonco] olūvel. </b>
<br><i>passive, SIV; topic = servant</i>
<br>Answers the question "What's happening to the servant?"
<br>Compared to the active, there's more interest in the verb: the actor (Oluon) need not even be stated.
<p><b>Lūve Oluon ecivea. </b>
<br><i>active, VSO; topic = love</i>
<br>Answers the question "Who loves who?"
<br>Best for emphasizing the relationship between the two parties.
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Case"><font color="#803800">Case usage</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The most obvious difference between English and Cuêzi is that Cuêzi has a full case system. It isn't so hard to learn to use the accusative for direct objects, the dative for indirect ones. It may take more time to get used to Cuêzi using an oblique case form where English would use a more specific prepositional phrase (e.g. <i>yēoredi</i> 'in the river', 'at the river', 'from the river'.
<p>Worse yet, many expressions have (from the point of view of English) quirky assignments of cases: e.g. in 'He paid the money to the trader', <i>money</i> is in the instrumental, not the accusative; in 'He argued the case before the judge', <i>judge</i> is in the dative. On the other hand, such usages have a logic of their own: e.g. money is after all what you use while paying, which is an instrumental use.
<p>The Lexicon indicates unusual case usages of verbs.
<h4><a name="Nominative"><font color="#803800">Nominative</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The nominative is used for the subject of a sentence, and also for predicate nominals.
<blockquote>
<b><u>Ilenda</u> ambris lūve.</b>
<br><i>The maiden loves the dancer. </i>
<p><b><u>Beretos</u> <u>ambrisas bāxe</u> ê.</b>
<br><i>Beretos is a fine dancer.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Accusative"><font color="#803800">Accusative</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The accusative is used for the direct object.
<blockquote>
<p><b>Ilenda <u>ambris</u> lūve.</b>
<br><i>The maiden loves the dancer. </i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Dative"><font color="#803800">Dative</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The dative is used for the indirect object.
<blockquote>
<p><b>Narruôs tōurosi <u>ōilādnu</u> dā.
<br></b><i>The King gave the cup to the stranger.
</blockquote></i>
<p>Where an action is performed against or in the presence of a human being, this referent tends to appear in the dative, where English would use 'with' or 'before'.
<blockquote>
<p><b>Ilendē ambecālu <u>namōna</u> brisītu.</b>
<br><i>The maidens danced gracefully before the Lords.
</blockquote></i>
<p>It's also used for the destination of a movement. Frequently Cuêzi will use the dative alone where English would use a prepositional phrase.
<blockquote>
<p><b>Ecivas tōurosi <u>etolnu</u> bā.</b>
<br><i>The servant put the cup on the table.</i>
<p><b>Lādāmo <u>Eleisanu</u>.</b>
<br><i>We're going to Eleisa.
</blockquote></i>
<p>
<h4><a name="Genitive"><font color="#803800">Genitive</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The genitive expresses possession: <b>sīma </b><b><u>namoex</b></u> 'the lord's dinner'; <b>xūnas </b><b><u>neni-nemaē</b></u> 'the land of the Babblers'.
<p>Genitive expressions indicating provenance are very common: <b>Beretos </b><b><u>Eteîaē Mitano</b></u> 'Beretos of Eteîa Mitano'.
<p>The genitive cannot be used in a partitive sense (unlike in Caďinor).
<h4><a name="Ablative"><font color="#803800">Ablative</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The ablative expresses the source of a movement. As with the dative, Cuêzi often does without the preposition needed in English.
<blockquote>
<p><b>Sīxisiu <u>etoltu</u> ōicopā.</b>
<br><i>The wineglass fell off the table.</i>
<p><b><u>Sindatu</u> fācumo.</b>
<br><i>We are leaving the city.
</blockquote></i>
<p>As an extension of this meaning, the ablative is used for locative expressions designating cities or regions (smaller areas, such as rooms, must take prepositional phrases).
<blockquote>
<p><b>Dūntrâcanavas <u>Norunaitu</u> gosā.</b>
<br><i>The deliberation took place in Norunayas.
</blockquote></i>
<p>The participial ablative of Caďinor does not exist in Cuêzi.
<h4><a name="Instrumental"><font color="#803800">Instrumental</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The instrumental expresses what an action is performed with. Note the double instrumental in the example-- anything used as materials can be expressed in the instrumental.
<blockquote>
<p><b>Isiliē pissā <u>crindaco</u> <u>trîgoco</u> pisē.</b>
<br><i>Isiliē wrote a letter on the paper with ink.
</blockquote></i>
<p>An important use of the instrumental is as an adverbial, since Cuêzi lacks a morphological adverb.
<blockquote>
<b>Antāu <u>coelīrco</u> Namiea-si gocivūre.</b>
<br><i>Antāu served his Lady devotedly (lit., with-devotion)</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="With"><font color="#803800">With prepositions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
When a preposition is used, the dative expresses motion toward; the ablative expresses motion from; and the genitive expresses location alone, with no suggestion of motion. (Note that this assignment of cases is <i>not</i> the same as in Caďinor.)
<blockquote>
<b>Lōn fa <u>nêmnu</u> balēi.</b>
<br><i>Put the apple inside the box (dat.).</i>
<p><b>Tībal fa <u>āetidi</u> ambrozalēi.</b>
<br><i>Take the horse out of the lake (abl.).</i>
<p><b>Antāu xu <u>etolex</u> gâsi.</b>
<br><i>Antāu is hiding under the table (gen.).
</blockquote></i>
<p>Other prepositions are generally used with one particular case; see the section on <i>Prepositions</i> below.
<h4><a name="After"><font color="#803800">After transformations</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
When a sentence is nominalized, the subject turns into a genitive, the object into a dative.
<blockquote>
<b>Ilenda ambris lūve --> lūvore Ilendaē ambrisnu</b>
<br><i>The maiden (nom.) loves the dancer (acc.) --> the maiden's (gen.) love for the dancer (dat.)
</blockquote></i>
<p>When a sentence is passivized, the object is promoted into a nominative, and the subject is demoted to an instrumental.
<blockquote>
<b>Ambrisas olūvel ilendalu.</b>
<br><i>The dancer (nom.) is loved by the maiden (ins.).</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Noun"><font color="#803800">Noun phrases</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<h4><a name="Numbers"><font color="#803800">Numbers</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The numbers from 1 to 10 are <b>āno</b>, <b>duna</b>, <b>dīma</b>, <b>bāor</b>, <b>pâtu</b>, <b>sêta</b>, <b>xāeps</b>, <b>yosi</b>, <b>nebu</b>, <b>dêt</b>. One hundred is <b>sicātu</b>; one thousand is <b>mēcau</b>.
<p><b>Āno</b> is declined as a regular adjective: <i>āne namo</i> 'one Lord', <i>ānanu yinanu</i> 'to one girl'. Unlike other adjectives, numbers normally precede the noun. The other numbers below 100 are not declined (except in very early Cuêzi, in which 2 and 3 are declined). <b>Sicātu</b> and <b>mēcau</b> are declined as a noun, followed by the genitive: <i>sicātu loniē</i> 'one hundred apples'.
<p>Historically, multiples of 10 were formed by adding -<b>dêt</b> to a combination form of the simple numbers; in classical Cuêzi the forms have become somewhat worn down: <b>dêt</b>, <b>dundê</b>, <b>dīnde</b>, <b>bārde</b>, <b>pâdê</b>, <b>sêdê</b>, <b>xāede</b>, <b>yoddê</b>, <b>nêddê</b>.
<p>Intermediate numbers are formed from the ten-multiple + -<b>t(o)</b> + the one-multiple: <b>dêtāno</b> 11, <b>dêtoduna</b> 12, <b>dundêtodīma</b> 23, <b>bārdetobāor</b> 44, <b>sêdêtoxāeps</b> 67, <b>nêddêtiosi</b> 98. These forms obviously derive from expressions like <i>dundêt-to dīma</i> 'twenty and three', which indeed are seen in pre-Golden Age Cuêzi.
<p>In rapid speech the -<b>dê</b>- seems to have been left out, and the two-syllable numbers reduced to one: <b>dun'todīm'</b> 23, <b>pâ'tān'</b> 51.
<p>The first three ordinals have suppletive roots: <b>eine</b>, <b>brose</b>, <b>dîero</b>. The subsequent ordinals are formed by the suffix -<b>ge</b>: <i>bāorge</i>, <i>pâtuge</i>, and so on. Fractions are named with the suffix -<b>gāu</b>: <i>dunagāu</i> 'one half'.
<h4><a name="Comparative"><font color="#803800">Comparative expressions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
In an expression like 'A is newer than B', A appears in the comparative, but is declined appropriately for its role in the sentence; B appears in the ablative, and agrees with A in gender and number.
<blockquote>
<b>Enatēras <u>leretâse lēiftu</u> ê.</b>
<br><i>The steward is more clever than a wolf.
</blockquote></i>
<p>The comparison can be reversed with <b>mai</b> 'not': <b>mai leretâse lēiftu</b> 'less clever than a wolf'. Literally you've only said that the gentleman is not cleverer than the wolf; but idiomatically it is understood that he does not even reach the wolf's level.
<p>If we're dealing with an equal level of cleverness, one uses a different expression: <b>lerete banco lēivex</b> 'clever as a wolf', literally 'clever in the way of a wolf'.
<p>The comparative alone, without a following ablative, is used as an intensifier:
<blockquote>
<b>Anda Caumēliye, lāurâte gobrintâse-to sēi.</b>
<br><i>O Caumēliye, you are most beautiful and most compassionate.
</blockquote></i>
<p>A superlative-- A is the newest of the B's-- is formed like a comparative, but with <b>seri</b> 'all' modifying B: <b>aduōrate serūna sindānu</b> 'mightiest of cities', literally 'more mighty than all cities'.
<h4><a name="Prepositions"><font color="#803800">Prepositions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Cuêzi is not rich in prepositions. There are only seven <b><i>locative</b></i> prepositions, each of which does the work of several of our prepositions.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>Prep</b></td>
<td><b>Meaning</b><b></td>
<td></b></td>
<td><b>Example</b></td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td><b>na</b></td>
<td>on, over, on top of</td>
<td></td>
<td><b>na etolex</b> 'on the table'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>xu</b></td>
<td>under, beneath</td>
<td></td>
<td><b>xu nîiē</b> 'under the snow'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>fa</b></td>
<td>in, within, inside, among</td>
<td></td>
<td><b>fa xudex</b> 'inside a hole'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>bri</b></td>
<td>in front of; around, near</td>
<td></td>
<td><b>bri aureē</b> 'near the House'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>drâ</b></td>
<td>behind, beyond, in back of</td>
<td></td>
<td><b>drâ pomex</b> 'behind the man'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>ōi</b></td>
<td>away/apart/far from</td>
<td></td>
<td><b>ōi sindex</b> 'away from the city'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>sā</b></td>
<td>between</td>
<td></td>
<td><b>sā arevitu</b> 'between the trees'</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>The examples are all locative expressions, using the genitive. Phrases using the dative express movement toward: <b>na etolnu</b> 'onto the table', while the ablative expresses movement away: <b>na etoltu</b> 'off the table'. Note that English would generally use different prepositions for the ablative expressions: compare <b>fa yeōrinu</b> 'into the river', <b>fa yeōredi</b> 'out of the river'.
<p>Naturally, all the locative prepositions can be used metaphorically: <b>fa cavex soex</b> 'in my heart', <b>na coelīrex</b> 'on (the subject of) devotion', <b>xu cācoē biraxex</b> 'under the heels of the enemy', etc.
<p>Expressions of <b><i>time</b></i> are generally prepositional phrases. The main prepositions used are:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>Prep</b></td>
<td><b>Meaning</b></td>
<td><b>Case</b></td>
<td><b>Example</b></td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td><b>na</b></td>
<td>when did the event occur</td>
<td>ins.</td>
<td><b>na sīmalu</b> 'at dinnertime'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>xu</b></td>
<td>how long did it take</td>
<td>ins.</td>
<td><b>xu setauco</b> 'for a week'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>drâ</b></td>
<td>subsequent events</td>
<td>gen.</td>
<td><b>drâ barīdecaē</b> 'after the wedding'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>bri</b></td>
<td>preceding events</td>
<td>gen.</td>
<td><b>bri sīmaē</b> 'before dinner'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td>abl.</td>
<td><b>bri sontu</b> 'a year ago'</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>Other prepositions, with their case usage:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#E0E0B0"><td><b>Prep</b></td>
<td><b>Meaning</b></td>
<td><b>Case</b></td>
<td><b>Example</b></td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td><b>go</b></td>
<td>with</td>
<td>ins.</td>
<td><b>go rīdalu-si</b> 'with his wife'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>in return for</td>
<td>acc.</td>
<td><b>go sīmā</b> 'in exchange for dinner'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>bis</b></td>
<td>without</td>
<td>gen.</td>
<td><b>bis bāxanavex</b> 'without skill'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>ex</b></td>
<td>against, despite</td>
<td>acc.</td>
<td><b>ex narrû</b> 'against the king'</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>so</b></td>
<td>pro, for, in favor of</td>
<td>dat.</td>
<td><b>so onāemnu</b> 'in favor of the work'</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Tense"><font color="#803800">Tense usage</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<h4><a name="Infinitives"><font color="#803800">Infinitive</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The infinitive is used, as in English, when there is more than one verb in a sentence:
<blockquote>
<b>Pomas pomillê <u>bēre</u> mai visse.</b>
<br><i>A real man does not know how to fear.</i>
<p><b>Pomi pomillēi loex sādore soē <u>namasiê</u> tiê.</b>
<br><i>My sister can overpower your real men.
</blockquote></i>
<p>The infinitive can also be used as an (undeclined) abstract noun, where we would generally use a gerund.
<blockquote>
<p><b>Etu vissê ê etu lūve.</b> <i>To know me is to love me.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Tense"><font color="#803800">Tense</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The <b><i>present</b></i> and <b><i>past tense</b></i> need no explanation. The <b><i>past anterior</b></i> is used in a past context to refer to an even earlier time:
<blockquote>
<b>Rēda narrûos utānā, <u>bāsirē</u> mâsio.</b>
<br><i>When the King arrived, the steward had already left.
</blockquote></i>
<p>The <b><i>future</b></i> tense is used, of course, to refer to future events. In Cuêzi, unlike English, one does not slip into the present to talk about the future.
<blockquote>
<b>Rēda <u>utānilēi</u>, <u>brisilitu</u> ilendē.</b>
<br><i>When you get here, the maidens will dance.
</blockquote></i>
<p>The future tense is also used as an imperative (but see the next section).
<blockquote>
<b><u>Brisilēi</u>!</b> <i>Dance!</i>
</blockquote>
<p>
<h4><a name="Mood"><font color="#803800">Mood</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
As the name indicates, the <b><i>definite</b></i> mood is used for what has actually happened, is happening now, or is probably going to happen.
<p>The <b><i>remote</b></i> mood is used for conditional, counterfactual, or unlikely actions or states. The simplest usage is simply to express doubt.
<blockquote>
<b>Mai lanê po narrûos mīsibodê <u>zesê</u>.</b>
<br><i>I don't think the king is happy.</i>
<p><b>Murgêde banco usūtaē <u>creyinā</u>.</b>
<v><i>Murgêde is said to have / may have eaten like a pig.
</blockquote></i>
<p>With verbs of desire it expresses concern that the desire may not be met. <b>Xotāu po lādale</b> and <b>Xotāu po </b><b><u>lādaline</b></u> both mean 'I want him to go' (In both cases <b>lāda</b> is placed (like the leaving) in the future); the second version, using the remote mood, implies that the prospect of him leaving is more remote, or at least it seems that way.
<p>The remote is much like the Romance subjunctive. However, it is not used for expressions of emotion, or for impersonal expressions-- unless there is uncertainty about the action itself.
<p>The future remote is frequently used as an imperative. Since it conveys uncertainty, it is considered more polite or deferential than the definite mood. In general the definite is reserved for children, inferiors, barbarians, and intimates
<blockquote>
<b>Sīxego <u>pisilesēu</u>. </b> <i>Please have some wine.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>In relative clauses, the remote can be used to indicate an indefinite antecedent. Compare:
<blockquote>
<b>Pom rāe xāeps rīdēnu barīdē orāu.</b>
<br><i>I know of a man who has seven wives [he definitely exists].</i>
<p><b>Pom rāe xāeps rīdēnu <u>barīdesē</u> îcāi.</b>
<br><i>I seek a man who has seven wives [if there is one].
</blockquote></i>
<p>Past events tend to be expressed in the definite, and future events in the remote, due to the inherent certitude of the former, and the unknowability of the latter. But the past remote still finds many uses (if the course of events is unknown, for instance, or if one is considering what could have happened), and so does the definite future (it is used when the event's probability is high, or the will of the participants strong).
<h4><a name="Conditional"><font color="#803800">Conditional expressions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Conditional expressions can occur with various combinations of the remote and definite moods. 'If X then Y' is expressed <b>Po</b> X <b>go totex</b> Y. If X and Y are both near certain, the definite is used for both:
<blockquote>
<b>Po barīdie, go totex barīdie.</b>
<br><i>If you're married, you're married.
</blockquote></i>
<p>If X is counterfactual, or even merely unlikely, both it and Y should be in the remote. (The consequent can't be less unlikely than the condition.)
<blockquote>
<b>Po namo vissese, go totex mai lerê zamêrine.</b>
<br><i>If the Lord knew, he would still pretend not to see.
</blockquote></i>
<p>In English, to signal that the Lord doesn't actually know, we use the past tense; Cuêzi uses the tense which applies to the time discussed, but in the remote. The tense may take some getting used to, but it is actually quite logical. If the condition applies to the present, as above, the present tense is used (the example translates literally "If the Lord knows..."); if it applies to the past, use the past:
<blockquote>
<b>Po namo vissetū, go totex mai lerê zamêrinā.</b>
<br><i>If the Lord had known, he would still have pretended not to see.
</blockquote></i>
<p>Finally, X can be placed in the definite, Y in the remote. The implication would be that X is an actual event or state, while Y is contingent; perhaps it depends on something else.
<blockquote>
<b>Po brissâ niōra zale, go totex enatēras ridilesi.</b>
<br><i>Though the dancing is beautiful, the steward may or may not smile.
</blockquote></i>
<p>(The example refers to a future event, so both clauses are in the future tense.)
<h4><a name="Aspect"><font color="#803800">Aspect</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
In general the <b><i>perfect</b></i> aspect is used for singular, completed actions; the <b><i>imperfect</b></i> is used for incomplete, durative, habitual, or repetitive actions.
<blockquote>
<b>Brozio lusinu.</b> <i>I walked</i> <font size=2>[PERFECT]</font> <i>to the glade.</i>
<br><b><u>Brozior</u> lusinu.</b> <i>I was walking / used to walk</i> <font size=2>[IMPERFECT]</font> <i>to the glade.</i>
<p><b>Xuêsicran mērie.</b> <i>I've read </i>Babblers<i> [and finished it].</i>
<br><b>Xuêsicran <u>mērier</u>.</b> <i>I was reading </i>Babblers<i> [but hadn't finished it].</i>
</blockquote>
<p>As in French or Spanish, the imperfect can be used to describe an action which was in progress at the time of a reported action:
<blockquote>
<b>Antāu Metainu <u>lādāre</u> rēda obērelo banilerā.</b>
<br><i>Antāu was proceeding to Metaiu when he encountered the monster. </i>
</blockquote>
<p>The imperfect is similar to our own progressive. It's also used for habitual or repeated actions, where we use our own past or perfect tense:
<blockquote>
<b>Na seriu sualixuelu arizārnu <u>brozior</u>.</b>
<br><i>Every day I walked to the granary. </i>
</blockquote>
<p>It is <i>not</i> used in Cuêzi when the verb is inherently durative or stative: <b>ôco tērie</b> 'I was watching the flock'. There is no need to indicate that the action is incomplete; watching (like seeing, thinking, or standing) is an activity which is happening while you're doing it, not (like recognizing, killing, or arriving) only when you're done with it. The imperfect (<b>ôco tērier</b>) would here be used only in a habitual sense ('I used to watch the flock').
<p><b>Esc</b> 'to be' is of course stative, and so usually used in the perfect; the imperfect implies a habitual meaning. Of course, what one in in the habit of being could be considered more one's true nature than what one is just sometimes; so the imperfect of 'be' comes to have the meaning 'is by nature'. Compare <b>sīcicolê sēi</b> 'you're drunk', <b>sīcicolê fuēi</b> 'you're a drunkard'. The distinction is similar to that between <i>ser</i> and <i>estar</i> in Spanish. However, statements of category membership (things which are always true) are expressed in the perfect: <b>siyise eteîa ê</b> 'a daisy is a flower'.
<p>When you've just finished an action, English used the present perfect ('I've just finished <i>Babblers! '</i>); Cuêzi uses the ordinary present (<b>Xuêsicran mērāu!</b>).
<p>Where English uses the present perfect to indicate an ongoing action, however, Cuêzi uses the present imperfect:
<blockquote>
<b>Eleisadi xu pâtu sualixuēlu <u>fuāi</u>.</b>
<br><i>I've been in Eleisa for five days. </i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Passives"><font color="#803800">Passive</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The passive voice presents no great difficulty; it has the same meaning as the English passive. The English learner has only to remember that in Cuêzi, as in Latin, the passive is morphological rather than synthetic.
<blockquote>
<b>Antāu Isiliê lūve. </b> <i>Antāu loves Isiliē.</i>
<br><b>Isiliē Antāco <u>olūvel</u>. </b> <i>Isiliē is loved by Antāu.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Both direct and indirect objects can passivize; but no other expressions (ablatives, instrumentals, etc.).
<blockquote>
<b>Narrûos tībal sindanu dā.</b>
<br><i>The King gave the horse to the city.</i>
<p><b>Tīble narrûco sindanu <u>odāl</u>.</b>
<br><i>The horse was given to the city by the King.</i>
<p><b>Sindas narrûco tībal <u>odāl</u>.</b>
<br><i>The city was given the horse by the King.
</blockquote></i>
<p>The passivized subject is demoted to an instrumental; the raised object becomes a nominative.
<p>Objects in subordinated clauses cannot be passivized: e.g. in the equivalent of <i>The king desired to give the horse to the city,</i> neither <i>horse</i> nor <i>city</i> can be raised to be the subject of the main clause.
<p>A few verbs have only passive forms: e.g. <b>onê</b> 'to be born', <b>ogonê</b> 'to burn'.
<h4><a name="Causatives"><font color="#803800">Causatives</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The causative is narrowly defined in Cuêzi, compared to Caďinor; the causative of a verb V simply means 'cause to V, make (someone or something) V.'
<blockquote>
<b>And'ilenda, sēnu ēr <u>lūvū</u>.</b>
<br><i>Girl, you make me love you.
</blockquote></i>
<p>The subject of the causation is placed in the dative. Compare:
<blockquote>
<b>Yina fēā-si creyā.</b>
<br><i>The girl ate her vegetables.</i>
<p><b>Mīdore yinanu fēā-si <u>creyeru</u>.</b>
<br><i>Her mother made the girl eat her vegetables.
</blockquote></i>
<p>Quite a few verbs in Cuêzi are intransitive; the causative must be used to produce a transitive meaning.
<blockquote>
<b>Meyu ripā. </b> <i>The water boiled.</i>
<p><b>Ecivei meinu <u>riperu</u>. </b> <i>The maid boiled the water.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Finally, note that there are a few concepts which are expressed in Cuêzi by a causative expression, where English would have an independent verb: <i>ōicopâ</i> 'fall', <i>ōicopû</i> 'drop'; <i>cōli</i> 'gather (intr.)', <i>cōlu</i> 'assemble (trans.)'. However, the meaning of the causative is always predictable from that of the main verb (which is not true of the dynamic tenses in Caďinor).
<h3><a name="Subordinate"><font color="#803800">Subordinate clauses</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
A propositional object is introduced with the conjunction <b>po</b> 'that'.
<blockquote>
<b>Enatēras Sonurdaē visse <u>po birax lerete ê</u>.</b>
<br><i>The Master of Arms knows that the enemy is clever.
</blockquote></i>
<p>Relative clauses are introduced by <b>rāe</b> 'who/what', whose case and number must correspond to its role in the subordinate clause. The relative clause normally follows its head noun, but this is not necessary.
<blockquote>
<b>Ande pīdore, moêle <u>rā lūvāo</u> lerilē.</b>
<br><i>O Father, behold the woman I love.</i>
<p><b>Pomi namasiōmo <u>radē tībal ōisizirītu</u>.</b>
<br><i>We defeated the men who had stolen the horse.
</blockquote></i>
<p>Relativization can be interpreted as a raising transformation:
<blockquote>
<b>Moêle [moêlê exmissiu] būe.</b>
<br><i>The woman [I insulted the woman] is crying.</i>
<p><b>--> Moêle [rā exmissiu] būe.</b>
<br><i>The woman [whom I insulted] is crying.
</blockquote></i>
<p>As in English, a doubly embedded noun phrase can't be raised:
<blockquote>
<p><i>I've met the woman [the stranger hit the man [The man insulted the woman]]
<br>--> *I've met the woman who the stranger hit the man who insulted.
</blockquote></i>
<p>However, a noun phrase may be relativized out of a sentence subordinated to a verb of cognition, like <i>know</i> or <i>believe</i>:
<blockquote>
<b>Ilendā [lanēo [ilenda po Norunaitu utāne]] bri setāuco balerio.</b>
<br><i>A week ago I met the maiden [you think [the maiden comes from Norunayas]].</i>
<p><b>Ilendā <u>rāe lanēo po Norunaitu utāne</u> bri setāuco balerio.</b>
<br><i>A week ago I met the maiden you think comes from Norunayas.
</blockquote></i>
<p>A better analysis, however, may be that the verb of cognition is simply treated as a parenthetical:
<blockquote>
<b>Ilendā rāe (lanēo) po Norunaitu utāne bri setāuco balerio.</b>
<br><i>A week ago I met the maiden (you think) comes from Norunayas.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Clitics"><font color="#803800">Clitics</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
If you can deal with <i>Senātus populusque Rōmae,</i> you should be able to deal with clitics in Cuêzi.
<ul>
<li> Any expression A <b>ton</b> B 'A and B' can be stated instead A B-<b>to</b>: <i>alaldi dulalaldi-to</i> 'stars and planets'. If B contains more than one word, -<b>to</b> should be appended to the first word: <i>Meyu pīsie sīmā-to creyio</i> 'I drank the water and ate the meal.' <p>
<li> Similarly, A <b>nô</b> B 'A, but B' can be stated using the clitic -<b>nô</b>: thus <i>Moêlē gobrināi, pomi-nô mai</i> 'Women I understand, but men not.'<p>
<li> And A <b>mai</b> B, 'A, not B', can be stated with -<b>me</b>: for example, <i>Moêlē pomi-me gobrināi</i> 'I understand women, not men.'<p>
<li> "Only, merely" can be abbreviated -<b>dâ</b>: <i>Antivāo-dâ,</i> 'I'm only joking.'<p>
<li> Finally, -<b>si</b> can be used as an abbreviation for <b>tāuex/tāyē</b> 'his or her': <i>cêla-si</i> 'his sword'; <i>manco-si</i> 'with her hands'. (Curiously, <b>-si</b>, unlike the pronouns proper, could be used to refer to deity. )</ul>
Clitics cannot be combined.
<p>It seems likely that only -<b>si</b> and -<b>to</b> were heard with much frequency in speech, and the latter only when conjoining single words, not sentences.
Other uses of the device tend to be highly literary.
<h3><a name="Negatives"><font color="#803800">Negatives</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The normal way to form the negative is to use the particle <b>mai</b> before the verb, or before the element particularly to be negated. (Note that the negation is presumably news, so the negated element tends to appear near the end of the sentence.)
<blockquote>
<b>Tīble fa āetiê mai ê.</b>
<br><i>The horse isn't in the lake.</i>
<p><b>Fa āetiê mai tīble ê.</b>
<br><i>It isn't the horse that's in the lake.
</blockquote></i>
<p>Any other negative word may be used in place of <i>mai</i>. Double negatives are prohibited; but the negative clitic -<b>me</b> may appear as an intensifier.
<blockquote>
<b>Bardāu soex maida zīdê cāure.</b>
<br><i>My brother never brings trouble.</i>
<p><b>Bardāu-me soex tiblê fa āetinu maida bā.</b>
<br><i>My brother NEVER put the horse in the lake!</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Questions"><font color="#803800">Questions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
To form a yes-no question, add the clitic -<b>me</b> to the verb, or to the element to be questioned:
<blockquote>
<b>Narrûos namiea lūve-me?</b> <i>Does the King love the Lady?</i>
<br><b>Narrûos namiea-me lūve? </b> <i>Is it the lady the King loves?</i>
<br><b>Namiei narrûco-me olūvel?</b> <i>Is it the King who loves the lady?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The clitic can be added to <i>mai</i> 'no' to form the interrogative particle <b>maime</b>, which suggests the answer no:
<blockquote>
<b>Bardāu soex cazu bri āetiē maime sā?</b>
<br><i>My brother wasn't even near the lake, was he?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The relative pronouns can also be used interrogatively:
<blockquote>
<b>Rāe bardāu soex lelā?</b>
<br><i>Who has seen my brother?</i>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Examples"><font color="#803800">Examples</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
<h3><a name="From"><font color="#803800">From the Count of Years</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
A short poem from the account of creation in the <i><a href="ciroma.htm">Count of Years</a></i>, written before -50. The meter is syllabic, based on lines of 14 syllables; there is also a somewhat intricate pattern to the number of long vowels on each line.
<blockquote>
<img src="cipoem.gif">
<p><b>Acūritār Alaldiē, na ūdelu oniex <br>Same mēgro-si, banco bardāex sualixueē!</b><font size=2><sup>1</sup></font>
<br><b>Bis xuōmaē, bis usolex, sīe-dâ sillaē.
<br>Ecaîas Esileto rōvas aduōre sā;
<br>Rīxa mai alaldi gōgnu tāunu tisītu.</b><font size=2><sup>2</sup></font>
<br><b> </b><b>Rāe līxrōvate ê? Dralāde Eīnatu
<br>Enatēras Sonurdaē; drâlu Yeâ dēsa
<br>rāex rogas gōngili rēda rêsile oniu.
<br>Iáinos Bidêroêllê caē natērēre,</b><font size=2><sup>3</sup></font>
<br><b>Somâ xosêyas-to cayuē sā amīsialu.
<br>Eīledan caē drouvū na ūdelu oniex;
<br>Fa itīraniē-si ogonas Ulōneē. </b>
<p>The Council of Stars, at the dawn of all:bright was its glory, like a brotherhood of suns!No shadow, no dark, only a sea of light.Ecaîas the Bright was their mighty head,Not even the stars could look full on his face:who could be stronger? Eīnatu came next, the Master of Arms; then Yeâ the kind, whose Horn will ring when all things end. Iáinos Unbegotten reigned over them,his dream and will were joyfully theirs.Eīledan formed them, at the dawn of all;in their hearts burned the fire of Ulōne.
</blockquote>
<p><b><i>Notes</b></i>
<font size=2>
<p><sup>1</sup>Note the idiom <b>banco bardāex sualixueē</b>, literally 'in the way of a brotherhood of suns'. <b>Banco</b> is the ablative of <i>banas</i> 'way', but is frequently used in this way to introduce a metaphor; it is followed by the genitive. Note also further on.
<p><sup>2</sup> Each line in this meter is divided into two halves of roughly equal size, and the unmarked order (<b>mai alaldi gōgnu tāunu rīxa tisītu</b>) wouldn't facilitate this. The easiest piece to move is <b>rīxa</b>.
<p><sup>3</sup> 'Reigned' is in the imperfect, to emphasize that Iáinos's rule was ongoing. The other verbs are in the perfect. In a couple of places the poet uses the present tense, for immediacy-- or to fit the meter.
</font>
<h3><a name="In"><font color="#803800">In the land of Babblers</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
A short passage from <i>In the land of Babblers,</i> by Beretos of Eteîa Mitano, written c. 300. Here Beretos is describing his tutor back in his House of origin, Tefalē Doro.
<blockquote>
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<p>sùro pomas bàure sà cillà ràex yêtullè sìtu gorito tàuex mòle douzas-nô tàuex lènite banco bâtex mavordex sà serùto xôtillisi mùre maibanco enatèrex sonurdaè evissexto bàurex etu maida clàyè tàu mai cazu gorasi sènu efòreru faleriê solèsico tisài òina ane cranivèy rà sènu dà ton rebancìrco oêlco bòsalu falerinu soex banco ulidanu odrâcàl tàunu ròcie po azienàrtu brozâ coêlier emê zamêrê tifuio po ane ecùnas roccaè fuinio yine pungillê missù landàuà loex currèlu ìlèlu eviù radè eîcèlu opistul rèda serico bri loex roccâ omer ràe dosilu eìledanex opiser
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<p><b>Sūro pomas bāure sā, cillā rāex yêtullē sītu, gori-to</b><font size=2><sup>1</sup></font><b> tāuex mōle, douzas-nô tāuex lēnite banco bâtex</b><font size=2><sup>2</sup></font><b> mavordex sā, serū-to xôtilli-si mūre. Maibanco</b><font size=2><sup>2</sup></font><b> enatērex sonurdaē evissex-to</b><font size=2><sup>3</sup></font><b> bāurex, etu maida clāyē tāu, mai cazu gora-si sēnu efōreru;</b><font size=2><sup>4</sup></font><b> faleriê</b><font size=2><sup>5</sup></font><b> solēsico tisāi ōina ane cranivēy rā sēnu dā (ton rebancīrco oêlco bōsalu falerinu soex banco ulidanu odrâcāl). Tāunu rōcie po azienārtu brozâ coêlier</b><font size=2><sup>6</sup></font><b>, emê zamêrê tifuio po ane ecūnas roccaē fuinio. "Yine pungillê," missū. "Landāuā loex currēlu īlēlu eviū radē eîcēlu opistul</b><font size=2><sup>7</sup></font><b><font size=2>,</b></font><b> rēda serico bri loex roccâ omer rāe dosilu Eīledanex opiser."</b>
<p>Sūro was an old man, whose hair was feathery and his voice soft; but his back was as straight as an iron rod, and he had all his teeth. Unlike the Master of Arms, and the old priest, he never struck me, or even raised his voice to me; in fact, I can only recall one rebuke he ever gave me (and for that reason, perhaps, it is engraved on my memory as if in steel). I had told him that I liked walking in the woods, because I could pretend I was one of the epic heroes. "Foolish boy," he said. "You deaden your mind with these thoughts of stories written by men, when all about you is a story which is written by the finger of God."
</blockquote>
<p><b><i>Notes</b></i>
<p><font size=2><sup>1</sup> Beretos frequently uses clitics: instead of <b>ton gori tāuex mōle (ê)</b>, he writes <b>gori-to tāuex mōle</b>. The second-position placement of <i>rāex</i> in the previous clause is an instance of the same stylistic device.
<p><sup>2 </sup><b>Maibanco</b> 'unlike' works like <b>banco</b>, which we met above.
<p><sup>3</sup> Both titles are interesting. An <b>enatēras</b> is one who is set to watch over (<i>na + tēre</i>) a sheepherd or by extension an estate or an office. <i>Nure</i> literally means 'to suck'; so <i>sonure</i> is literally to give suck-- that is, to provide what is necessary; thus <i>sonurdāe</i> 'provisions', or more precisely 'weapons'. Thus <b>enatēras sonurdaē</b> 'Master of Arms'. Finally, <i>vissê</i> is 'to know', so an <b>evissas Eīledanex</b> is a 'one who knows Eīledan'-- a specialist in religion, a priest.
<p><sup>4</sup> Literally, he did not <b>efōru</b> 'make louder' his voice-- an example of a causative formed from an adjective. It appears here in the imperfect, emphasizing that the restraint was habitual.
<p><sup>5</sup> Another interesting word: to remember is <b>falerê</b>-- literally 'to see inside' your mind. The next word, <b>solēsico</b>, is the instrumental of <i>solēsias</i> 'truth', which must serve for the adverbs Cuêzi does not possess.
<p><sup>6</sup> Note the use of the naked ablative <b>azienārtu</b> 'in the woods'-- no preposition is needed, since no other could reasonably have been meant. The imperfect is used here, as Beretos' walks were repeated.
<p><sup>7</sup> Sūro might equally have said <b>rade eīcē pisītu</b> 'which men wrote'; note how the Cuêzi passive, unlike the English, is no wordier than the active; it is thus available for subtle distinctions of focus, without imparting a difference in stylistic register.
</font>
<h2><a href="cuezilex.htm">Lexicon</a> </h2>
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<i>© 2003 by Mark Rosenfelder</i><br>
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