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<H2><a name="contents">Cadhinor through the ages</a></H2>
<i>I've already put <a href="native.htm">Shm Revouse's grammar of Cadhinor</a> on the web. Rather than add the entire grammatical sketch from </i>Languages of Almea<i>, I've included the most useful portions not covered by Revouse:</i>
<ul>
<li><a href="#5.6"><b>Examples</b> of Cadhinor over two milennia</a>
<li><a href="#5.7">Cadhinor to Verdurian <b>sound changes</b></a>
<li><a href="#5.4"><b>Derivational</b> morphology</a>
<li><A href="cadhlex.htm">A comparative <b>Lexicon</b> of Cadhinor, Verdurian, Ismaîn, and Barakhinei</a>
</ul>
<hr>
<h2><a name="5.6"><font color="#000060">Examples</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
Here I give examples of Cadhinor through the ages, from the earliest times to near the present.
<center>
<br><a href="#Old">Old Pre-Imperial Cadhinor: Petitions to Caloton, 800</a>
<br><a href="#Early">Early Classical Cadhinor: Court annals, 1310</a>
<br><a href="#Mature">Mature Classical Cadhinor: Ilcorea, 1685</a>
<br><a href="#Late">Late Classical Cadhinor: Peleion of Scormai, 2250</a>
<br><a href="#Late2">Late Vernacular Cadhinor: Okhdennos, 2400</a>
<br><a href="#Medieval">Medieval Scholarly Cadhinor: Mesheli Cördi, 3032</a>
</center>
<p>I have followed the practice of modern printed works in Cadhinor, separating words by spaces and inserting commas for readability. The letterforms are normalized, so as to use the Eleisa and Verdurian fonts; but the orthography is that of the original documents.
<h3><a name="Old"><font color="#000060">Old Pre-Imperial Cadhinor: Petitions to Caloton, 800</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The first Central nation to write in its own language was Araunicoros (c. 650); the middle Svetlan principalities, Cadhinas proper, followed about half a century later.
<p>It was the custom in Ctésifos at this time to write requests to Caloton on slips of reed paper and stuff them into a hole at the base of his statue in the god's Hill Temple. Periodically the priests would burn the papers to make room for more; but a quantity were lost, and discovered two milennia later in the ruins of the temple.
<p>I've used the Eleisa (Cuêzi) font, to indicate that the letterforms of this time were closer to Cuêzi than to later Cadhinor forms.
<center><img src="illo/cadhex1.gif" title="Petitions"></center>
<p></font><b>Sesieica kesset</b><b><font size=2><sup>1</b></sup></font><b>, Ienomais trabret.
<p>Ut necan hionnokethilei</b><b><font size=2><sup>2</b></sup></font><b> timeriae</b><b><font size=2><sup>3</b></sup></font><b> ahus</b><b><font size=2><sup>4</b></sup></font><b> celeren caelilei maretao.
<p>Caloteion belor palledhes tandes im aidhin, cuedros eris eth rohit.</b><b><font size=2><sup>5</b></sup></font><b>
<p>Ut iretha virakhei erii motretit</b><b><font size=2><sup>6</b></sup></font><b>, ut imfantulit tuae tiumad scustebremont, ut kira tuae racniam khmatulan babetes</b><b><font size=2><sup>7</b></sup></font><b>.
<p>Pidor eae</b><b><font size=2><sup>8</b></sup></font><b> maleioth dhomilei</b><b><font size=2><sup>9</b></sup></font><b> scoluat.
<p>Icte zonnan</b><b><font size=2><sup>10</b></sup></font><b> len is bounad bounimaa precie, ac nisios fuae. Scupises buesi.
<p>Aidhoclithis</b><b><font size=2><sup>11</b></sup></font><b> uila kae medh eri rikhinset dia dhebremet, cthelteim hieim turi.</b><b><font size=2><sup>12</b></sup></font><b>
<p>Kira eris Isciran medh precet, pro ketotan</b><b><font size=2><sup>13</b></sup></font><b> medh kirae uilae erie diset. Elorein</b><b><font size=2><sup>14</b></sup></font><b> clithe er dia bucelossit</b><b><font size=2><sup>15</b></sup></font><b> precu.
<p></b>That the drought end, there is too much sun.
<p>That I may wed the daughter of the baker on the third street from the river.
<p>Caloton, our greatest friend among the gods, my heart churns.
<p>That my enemy's crops rot, that his children fall to the plague, that his wife cuckold him with a slave.
<p>I want my father to recover from his arthritis.
<p>I asked you last year for a calf from my cow, and there was nothing. Do not be miserly!
<p>The old witch who is looking on my son to harm him-- scorch her evil eye.
<p>My wife is asking Iscira for a son, because she hates the son of my first wife. Speak to the Queen and ask her not to hear.
<h4><a name="Notes"><font color="#000060">Notes</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<sup>1</sup> Most of these wishes appear in the remote mood, since they describe desired states. Later Cadhinor would demand <i>ut</i> if the main clause was remote, but at this time <i>ut</i> was optional. Note the irregular remote stem for <i>kescen</i>.
<p><sup>2</sup> Literally, 'bread-provider'; the later word was <i>bulondic</i>.
<p><sup>3</sup> <i>Din</i> 'three' seems hardly related to <i>tmeres</i> 'third', but the connection is clear in proto-Eastern (<i>*di:m, *di:mer</i>), and slightly clearer in this earlier form of <i>tmeres</i>.
<p><sup>4</sup> Later <i>aius</i>.
<p><sup>5</sup> Literally, 'my heart twists me'.
<p><sup>6</sup> The ending <i>-etit</i> later dissimilated to <i>-etis</i>.
<p><sup>7</sup> Literally 'open wide her thighs'; <i>babec</i> was later restricted to the mouth (= 'gape'), and in Verdurian, to one type of mouth-opening, the yawn.
<p><sup>8</sup> In classical Cadhinor it would be a great <i>faux pas</i> to use the genitive to refer to a superior. The dative must be used: <i>pidor seon</i>.
<p><sup>9</sup> <i>Maleio</i> is an early word for 'badness', later <i>malneica</i>. The 'badness of stone' is arthritis or gout, which were believed to result from an overabundance of the element of stone in the body. Later medicine preferred the word <i>tugeica</i> 'stiffening'.
<p><sup>10</sup> Literally 'before the year'. Later Cadhinor would have <i>de ictedhen zonnan</i>.
<p><sup>11</sup> <i>Aidhoclithis</i> is an early word for a female priest, literally 'god-speaker'; this would not be a priest of the temple, but a popular shaman, who channelled the <i>fantit</i>, intermediary spirits between god and man.
<p><sup>12</sup> This is a topic-comment sentence; a classical writer would clean it up by putting the godspeaker in the genitive ("scorch the evil eye of the witch").
<p><sup>13</sup> Later <i>kettan</i>.
<p><sup>14</sup> The queen is of course Iscira, Enäron's wife. The man's wife is addressing her as the goddess of marriage and childbirth.
<p><sup>15</sup> <i>Celuscir</i> once had an irregular remote stem <i>celoss-</i>.
<h3><a name="Early"><font color="#000060">Early Classical Cadhinor: Court annals, 1310</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Though this passage (from the annals of the Bumehul Reth borough court) comes at the very dawn of the classical era, it already carries the ease and authority of that period-- not suprisingly, since Cadhinor had already been the language of empire for several centuries. Spelling is mostly standardized, and the chief characteristic of this era remains a certain artlessness of syntax and lexicon. Some examples will be pointed out in the notes.
<p><center><img src="illo/cadhex2.gif" title="Opogaros"></center>
<p><b>Curies litim Opogarei Ctaneroth argentorionei curiae akh Ravoberacan medrilen mactanae nengiae. Opogaros necaa, kae iat redel alderu, doman Ravoberacei derae cum numan psorer er mihiretaa caedec er melia spakhea scrifec.</b><font size=2><sup>1</sup></font><b> Ravoberac dia gina im nubraa ctanevut</b><font size=2><sup>2</sup></font><b> er deceorevut</b><font size=2><sup>3</sup></font><b>. Opogaros cum aidhoclithun aidhnaurei Caloteionei laudae er Ravoberac melemu. Ravoberac baesae dia ginaa kirad aldetes. Dhunit eleuit</b><font size=2><sup>4</sup></font><b> den</b><font size=2><sup>5</sup></font><b> nosei cumaldiunt. De illun dennan harada, Ravoberac busan marin lescelan ctanae, er kensadae dia gina nessei basei fuae, er busan scriftan, er tala sulies dia gar butenu.
<p>Opogaros dia neca im doman ctanevut ac mesmos im curien ctanae. Clithu</b><font size=2><sup>6</sup></font><b> dia Ravoberac cumaldel caie diserut er cadhin sonsand dekutherut er necaa tuae and nosin altrein deceorerut. Ravoberac clithu dia cumaldel eta lescelan marin</b><font size=2><sup>7</sup></font><b> budemerirae er admetteca culpevut</b><font size=2><sup>8</sup></font><b> dia gina ceora bufurae.
<p>Sudrae curies dia cumaldel dandel lutiecoth, sonsandos guesos hamurabei tenes. Maris lescel demutim duha esces</b><font size=2><sup>9</sup></font><b>. Ravoberac culerionoth er mascionoth tuae ginan deceorevut, odia curies sudrae dia sonsand aldantei hescevut. Aetotos</b><font size=2><sup>10</sup></font><b> bolgies vaureica es akh Caloteionan.</b><font size=2><sup>11</sup></font><b> Ut duha bargaum opei nacitaumei</b><font size=2><sup>12</sup></font><b> Ravoberacei preninet; aeloth dimoth bargaum Opogaran er bargaum curien er dhunoin bargauim aidhnauren Caloteionei probrinet.
<p></b>The court heard the quarrel of Opogaros of Cterano, a silversmith, against Ravoberac, a noble of the same city. Opogaros had sent his daughter, who had already had her coming of age, to the house of Ravoberac to serve and to practice manners and learn good language. Ravoberac took the girl to his bed and despoiled her. Opogaros went with a priest of the temple of Ishira and complained to Ravoberac. Ravoberac promised to have her as his wife. The two men agreed on a date for the wedding. On that day, however, Ravoberac came without a gift for the bride, and explained that the girl was of inferior birth, uneducated, and so young that she had no sense.
<p>Opogaros took his daughter home, but came into the court, stating officially that Ravoberac had broken his word, defied Cadhinorian custom, and ruined his daughter for any other match. Ravoberac claimed that there had been no agreement on a gift, and alleged as well that the girl was not a virgin.
<p>The court ruled that in the absence of an agreement otherwise, custom has the force of law; thus that Ravoberac owed the customary bride-price to Opogaros. The court found also that, Ravoberac being her host and master at the time he despoiled the girl, he had violated the laws of hospitality. This is a great offense against Caloton. A quarter of his worldly goods should therefore be confiscated; of this, a quarter was assigned to Opogaros, a quarter to the court, and two quarters to the temple of Caloton.
<h4><a name="Notes"><font color="#000060">Notes</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<sup>1</sup> In early Cadhinor multiple conjoints each needed their own conjunction.
<p><sup>2</sup> In early Cadhinor causatives were more conspicuously treated as subclauses; thus the <i>dia</i>. Later writers would have <i>Ravoberac ginan im nubraa ctanevut</i>.
<p><sup>3</sup> This concept was expressed differently over time: <i>deceoran</i> 'spoil' early on, <i>carpec</i> 'seize' in classical times, and <i>stupen</i> 'oppress' from the Dark Years and on into Verdurian. We would also expect an object pronoun <i>tun</i> here, but at this time it was often omitted.
<p><sup>4</sup> Early imperial society was highly stratified, and <i>eleus</i> 'free man' was often used where we would expect simply <i>urestu</i> 'man'. This particular case is famous in Cadhinorian law, because it is one of the first clear judgments against a noble and in favor of a craftsman, though a rich one.
<p><sup>5</sup> The sound change V:C > VCC did not apply in a final syllable, so that <i>den</i> is the expected form. In mature Cadhinor the spelling was regularized to <i>denn</i>, but the pronunciation remained the same.
<p><sup>6</sup> There were several words for 'say' or 'speak' in Cadhinor. <i>Clithec</i> implies ceremonial or official import; we might say "stated under oath" or "gave as his statement". Note that a priest is an <i>aidhoclithus</i>, one who speaks formally to the gods.
<p><sup>7</sup> In later times the order of the two words could not be varied like this-- a sign that at this date <i>maris lescel</i> was a description, and not fully an idiom. Indeed, variants like <i>lescel nosei</i> are found.
<p><sup>8</sup> Later there was a word for 'allege' (<i>adgaetir</i>, literally 'throw at'); but for now the word <i>culpir</i> (meaning 'accuse' in its dynamic forms) is used. Similarly, <i>prenan</i> below for 'confiscate' would strike later writers as naïve; they would use <i>adcothir</i>.
<p><sup>9</sup> Here and later in the passage, the court's orders are reported in the remote past, which is appropriate for a command issued in the past.
<p><sup>10</sup> <i>Aetotos</i> is an old spelling of <i>aettos</i>.
<p><sup>11</sup> Except perhaps for the ablative of role which is unfamiliar to English speakers, the syntax here is simple, avoiding subordinate clauses-- rather as in speech. The overall structure is "Ravoberac did X, so (<i>odia</i>) the court said he did Y. This is Z" Later writers would prefer "The court said that, because Ravoberac had done X, then he did Y, which is Z." Also to be noted is the verb <i>hescir</i>; in Cadhinor one 'falls short' of a law.
<p><sup>12</sup> <i>Opos nacitaum</i> is literally 'wealth to be carried', thus, 'moveable goods', as opposed to <i>opos tekec</i> 'standing wealth', meaning one's house, land, and title. Nothing a noble could do to a mere craftsman would result in the loss of these things, the foundation of his noble estate.
<h3><a name="Mature"><font color="#000060">Mature Classical Cadhinor: Ilcorea, 1685</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Ilcorea was, along with Genremos, the greatest of the Cadhinorian philosphers. An idealist and agnostic, he antagonized the clergy not with his opinions, but by his preaching them in the street, and appealing to the worshippers of the gods to idolize order, goodness, reason, and beauty instead.
<p>His masterpiece is <i>Aidhos ab raduman </i>("God viewed with reason," 1685), containing his argument that these four qualities are the building blocks of God. The cornerstone of his theology is his version of the argument from perfection, below.
<p>Ilcorea has remained a paragon of Cadhinor style for three milennia; yet few have equalled his effortless mastery of the resources of the language, his clear and direct style, and his lack of pretension. <i>Im Ilcorean,</i> commented one admirer, <i>nisios cael ibrilen er ielan ctet</i>. ("In Ilcorea, nothing comes between the reader and the idea."
<p><center><img src="illo/cadhex3.gif" title="Ilcorea"></center>
<p><b>Nis scos cumpugul im naurondan leilai-- scehis tura, scehis faubel, scehis nactec punsaa tenes. Nisios harada fasilor es im raduman ielaa implican turae cumpuguliae, faubelei busan punsan, nactecei esistascei er meliscei.
<p>Iela cumpugeioi im raduman erin seon kredhut dia aidhos</b><b><font size=2><sup>1</b></sup></font><b> demerir debrit. Kensa epesemet dia implicantos ab kettan cumpugeiom gadimu thisiot andeoror er tistedhes prirondad tenetes?</b><b><font size=2><sup>2</b></sup></font><b> Fasilnecue gadhum er ierecue dumom; deroait kisciat esam, er fruhecue is Alameiad</b><b><font size=2><sup>3</b></sup></font><b> faucum. Ielet tandet borgel caduth bueusont</b><b><font size=2><sup>4</b></sup></font><b>; tas ielaa talaa im raduman tenileith, prironda thisiot esistedhe currec debrit, currec aidh.</b><b><font size=2><sup>5</b></sup></font><b>
<p></b> I see no perfect thing in the world: every pear, every painting, every leader contains a flaw. Yet there is nothing easier than to entertain in the mind the idea of a perfect pear, a painting without flaw, a ruler utterly noble and good.
<p>The ideal of perfection within me convinces me that God must exist. How could it be that imagination, by which I conceive of perfection, contains something grander and purer than reality? We perceive shoddily, and think dully; we are weak creatures, and soon gone from the world. Our ideals cannot be the exception to this rule; if we can have such an idea within our minds, reality must contain something greater still,must contain God.
<h4><a name="Notes"><font color="#000060">Notes</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<sup>1</sup> We are so used to addressing <i>God</i> that we may pass over this usage of <i>aidhos</i> without comment; but it seems to have been pioneered by Ilcorea. The Cuêzi trinity was referred to by its individual names, or by Cuêzi theological terms; philosophers spoke of <i>aidhantos</i> 'the divine'.
<p><sup>2</sup> Note the use of the remote to indicate the unreality of the possibility under discussion (that the imagination of an inconsiderable being may contain something greater than reality itself).
<p><sup>3</sup> Ilcorea uses three words for 'world' in this passage. <i>Nauronda</i> is the general, everyday term, literally 'the great place', most like our word 'world'; <i>prironda</i> is a philosophical term, 'what is real'; and Alameia, literally 'earth and water', refers to the human world, excluding the celestial and the divine-- the world that we leave at death.
<p><sup>4</sup> <i>Epesan</i> alone is an ellipsis for <i>esan epesan</i>.
<p><sup>5</sup> A rare but effective bit of drama: we might have expected "...aidh currec debrit". The outer-level verb is omitted for brevity, and since in effect <i>currec (debrit)</i> is now the topic of this subclause and <i>aidh</i> the comment, the latter is placed last.
<h3><a name="Late"><font color="#000060">Late Classical Cadhinor: Peleion of Scormai, 2250</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The text is from the <i>Rocca Atrabantei Lebei er Uilei </i>('Epic of the Old and New Empire', 2250) of Peleion of Scormai, a history of Cadhinas from the civil wars through the period of the Oligarchy, culminating in a rather hagiographical account of the restoration of the Empire under Irun.
<p>Like other writers of his time, including the priests who would soon be commissioned to write the <i>Adhivro</i>, Peleion aimed for as classical a Cadhinor as possible. Dictionaries of classical usage were compiled, so that authors could avoid any word not found in the standard authors; manuals of usage were written to bolster bits of grammar already fading from speech (such as the ablative or the comparative) and warn against common errors. The most noticeable difference between Peleion and Ilcorea is stylistic-- Ilcorea does not try half so hard to write elegantly.
<p><center><img src="illo/cadhex4.gif" title="Peleion"></center>
<p></b><b>Kethulit, ceram pseril kettos naiun Cadhinai nunc deforkhae. Atrabant kaeth tanduit lihalerint</b><font size=2><sup>1</sup></font><b> pidorit, kahe zonnith scorui</b><b><font size=2><sup>2</b></sup></font><b> isramperiont esistasce atrabant kaeth khupe Ienomain leileriont cebran, er zahie stupeci stupen viocteim Munkhai ctaneriont,</b><b><font size=2><sup>3</b></sup></font><b> kestevint hurulecit er iduresmeit, Claetura Rugities scustebreca. Bucreteit asuenaa Aeirveai velen, ditrui imfantuli tagiae atrabiiae gueveca er kuebicue kekiont. Kae lebdan</b><b><font size=2><sup>4</b></sup></font><b> medinilea trohinet?</b><b><font size=2><sup>5</b></sup></font><b> Kae belor licrei esces, kae claetudonecin pro meain caie adveitisat?</b><b><font size=2><sup>6</b></sup></font><b> Kae khrabricaa khumei</b><b><font size=2><sup>7</b></sup></font><b> </b><b>Aerivilea</b><b>i habiris?
<p></b>Children, reflect on the shame which now attached to the realm of Cadhinas. The empire which was raised by our fathers, who emerged from the Years of Darkness to build the greatest empire ever seen under the sun, and came to oppress their oppressors, the demons of Munkhâsh, was overthrown by pirates and greedy men, the murderous Red Cabal. Not content with the seizure of Ervëa's throne, they murdered the innocent children of the imperial house, like cowards and brutes. Who could be found to restore the divine order? Who would be the friend of the poor man; who would make the caballists answer for their deeds? Who would show the bravery of the blood of Ervëa?
<h4><a name="Notes"><font color="#000060">Notes</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<sup>1</sup> <b><font size=2><sup> </b></sup></font>The past anterior is used to report the deeds of the ancestors, the simple past being used for the days of the Cabal. The transition back to the past, with <i>kestevint</i> below, helps clarify this rather baroque sentence.
<p><sup>2</sup> The <i>zonnit scorui</i> 'years of darkness' were of course the days of the Munkhâshi occupation. <i>Zonnit</i> appears in the ablative, since it is what our fathers were crawling out of.
<p><sup>3</sup> A more neutral word order would be <i>stupeci zahie, viocteim Munkhai, stupen</i>; but the author juxtaposes <i>stupeci</i> and <i>stupen</i>, for a bit of stylistic oomph.
<p><sup>4</sup> The placement of the infinitive in second position, though allowed in classical Cadhinor, is one of the few telltales that this passage is late. This was the first stage in the change to SVO.
<p><sup>5</sup> This series of rhetorical questions is in the remote mood (because finding such a man was problematic) and the past tense (because they refer to a past epoch).
<p><sup>6</sup> Note the use of the causative <i>adveitisat</i>: our unknown hero will force the caballists to answer (<i>adveiten</i>) for their actions. <i>Adveiten pro meain</i> 'answer for one's deeds' is a late idiom; earlier authors would probably write <i>khruditir meai</i> 'embrace the deeds'.
<p><sup>7</sup> The Cadhinorians spoke of inheriting the <i>khumos</i> (literally 'guts', metaphorically 'passions') rather than the blood of their illustrious forebears. Note also the idiom: the hero will 'wear' (= 'show') Aerivileas' courage. Aerivileas (V. <i>Ervëa</i>) is of course the greatest of the Cadhinorian emperors, the conqueror of Munkhâsh.
<h3><a name="Late2"><font color="#000060">Late Vernacular Cadhinor: Okhdennos, 2400</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<p>This passage is part of <i>Pomaureta Baesie</i> ("Story collection of heroes") by Okhdennos of Aites, a collection of instructive moral stories written at the popular level. Here Okhdennos is retelling the story of the Second Age, a story familiar from the <i>Adhivro</i> and the <i>Ciröma</i>; but these works were written in classical Cadhinor and already somewhat difficult for the masses. (I've retold it myself in <i>Almean Belief Systems.</i>)
<p>Popular writers treated Cadhinor as an orthographically difficult way to write the language they spoke, which was already well on the way to becoming Old Verdurian. Verbs are migrating to the middle of the sentence; prepositions and synthetic constructions are multiplying; the verbal system is being rearranged; sound changes produce frequent spelling errors.
<p>Letterforms developed into a cursive form, ancestral to today's minuscules, and abbreviations appeared (e.g. ua = â, ia = ä). I have shown the latter in the native script, but not in the transliterated form.
<p><center><img src="illo/cadhex5.gif" title="Okhdennos"></center>
<p></b><b>Khegiaidhit Aevetalan adveitiont</b><b><font size=2><sup>1</b></sup></font><b>, er spakhiont dia nis belaca nis espuila nis alete cedel</b><b><font size=2><sup>2</b></sup></font><b> toscemont pro maltren kuebi Skagond er viogem</b><b><font size=2><sup>3</b></sup></font><b> illui</b><b><font size=2><sup>4</b></sup></font><b>, ac sula itiranit iliuie. Kettot vulint ab aelun login emec? tu usciscinet</b><b><font size=2><sup>5</b></sup></font><b>, ac cai fausirient</b><b><font size=2><sup>6 </b></sup></font><b>er buspakhiont.
<p>Aevetal medh</b><b><font size=2><sup>7</b></sup></font><b> Iriandei duminsu</b><b><font size=2><sup>8</b></sup></font><b> logi kettot tun diont, ac bucumprennet, er tur hescae</b><b><font size=2><sup>9</b></sup></font><b>, ne bualterec</b><b><font size=2><sup>10</b></sup></font><b> kettot plesten iliuin kae illeth voirient.</b><b><font size=2><sup>11</b></sup></font><b>
<p>Debutae</b><b><font size=2><sup>12</b></sup></font><b> renlaudan, ac olosinet</b><b><font size=2><sup>13</b></sup></font><b> lasses, er proscaleae khupe arban. Ne proscalean, hie illui trogae kosca</b><b><font size=2><sup>14</b></sup></font><b>, kae subrinsae uradom</b><b><font size=2><sup>15</b></sup></font><b>. Pensae</b><b><font size=2><sup>16</b></sup></font><b> soa koscaa</b><b><font size=2><sup>17</b></sup></font><b> guebrec, ne agellan uradon. Proscet tu gadet dia so urados</b><b><font size=2><sup>18</b></sup></font><b> kosca lelinet</b><b><font size=2><sup>19</b></sup></font><b>, er im paikhreica siuisinet, er letae ad kobon illae; er altreit uraduit</b><b><font size=2><sup>20</b></sup></font><b> pentiont, ne renemec zeinnom</b><b><font size=2><sup>21</b></sup></font><b>, er guiminiont kob sohei imlaudecei. Ne kescan, laprae kosca, er illun subriont uraduit letecoit. Er Aevetal konsael khegiaidhie cumpreninet.</b><b><font size=2><sup>22</b></sup></font><b>
<p></b>The Guardians answered Évetal, and said that neither swords nor magic would suffice to destroy cruel Shkagon and his demons, but only the spirits of the ilii. What do you mean by these words? he cried, but they were gone, and said no more.
<p>Évetel son of Iriam pondered the words he had been given, but did not understand, and he despaired, not knowing what to report to the ilii who had sent him.
<p>He started his return, but grew weary, and rested under a tree. As he rested, his eye fell on a cat, who was stalking a bird; and he thought to frighten the cat away, as a kindness to the bird. But then he saw that the bird had seen the cat, and was twittering away in alarm, and flying down at its head; and other birds also sang out, repeating the outcry , and mobbed the head of the intruder. Finally the cat fled, pursued by flying birds. And Évetel understood the counsel of the Guardians.
<h4><a name="Notes"><font color="#000060">Notes</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<sup>1</sup> Pronounced <i>advechont</i>; but there was as yet no way to spell new sounds (and the change was perhaps not yet phonemic). Same story with <i>Khegiaidhit</i>, pronounced <i>Khejaydhî.</i>
<p><sup>2</sup> Classical <i>aletes caedel</i>, the 'high practice'. Final -<b>s</b> was already lost in speech; writers remembered that it was supposed to be there, but often forgot it. The spelling <i>cedel</i> similarly indicates that the <b>ae > e</b> sound change was already underway.
<p><sup>3</sup> Classical <i>viocteim</i>, now pronounced <i>viojem</i>. The spoken <i>j</i> could represent a written <i>g</i> or <i>ct</i>; the writer here has chosen the wrong possibility.
<p><sup>4</sup> The use of <i>illu/illa</i> as pronouns is already old. 'Of those demons' would be <i>illui vioctem</i>; cf. <i>aelun login</i> farther on.
<p><sup>5</sup> Classical <i>husciscae</i>. <b>H</b> was already lost, though writers wrote it when they remembered to. Since final -<i>ae</i> and -<i>et</i> were now pronounced alike, as -<i>e</i>, the past tense was now quite problematic; already, in speech, the remote past was used instead (except for <i>-ec</i> verbs). Writers could still use the static past; but in moments of emotion they were wont to use the remote past, for a colloquial, engaging effect.
<p><sup>6</sup> Classical <i>faucirient</i>. The <b>c > s</b> sound change more often affected spelling, since it resulted in an existing sound.
<p><sup>7</sup> Final -<i>os</i> was most likely pronounced -<sup>e</sup>, and lost entirely before a vowel (as well as in some words used mostly as accusatives). Writers sometimes wrote (say) <i>medho</i>, sometimes remembered the final -<i>s</i>.
<p><sup>8</sup> Pronounced <i>duminzu</i>; but as this change was regular, and there were no words with <nz>, it was not hard to remember that [nz] was spelled <ns>... at least until the <i>n</i> was nasalized and then lost.
<p><sup>9</sup> The metaphors 'lose the flame' for 'despair' and 'keep the flame' for 'hope' were already in use, though there would be some lexical shifting before V. <i>chasishshelec</i> and <i>chascurec</i> were lexicalized.
<p><sup>10</sup> In Classical Cadhinor such expressions would use the ablative; but <i>ne</i> + infinitive was now a popular way of expressing a gerundive ('not knowing', in this case). Verdurian has the same construction, but now uses <i>she</i> as the pronoun.
<p><sup>11</sup> Classical <i>kahe tua vohirient</i>.<b>
<p></b><sup>12</sup> Classical <i>debutnae</i>.
<p><sup>13</sup> The classical remote form would be <i>olocinet</i>.
<p><sup>14</sup> Accusative <i>koscaa</i> and nominative <i>kosca</i> had merged in speech; writers sometimes forgot to restore the distinction.
<p><sup>15</sup> Classical <i>urado</i>; the -<i>m</i> was added by analogy with the other neuter declensions.
<p><sup>16</sup> Classical <i>pense</i>. Minor differences between the <i>-ir</i> and <i>-er</i> conjugations, and between <i>-an</i> and <i>-en</i>, tended to be levelled out.
<p><sup>17</sup> <i>Sohaa koscaa</i>, 'the aforementioned cat, the said cat'. The expression is already on its way to becoming an article; but it's used much less than it would be in later times.
<p><sup>18</sup> Classical <i>uradus</i>. The -<i>s</i> was not pronounced; but the vowel was not reduced. Thus the overall progression is <i>-os > -e > -0 </i>but <i>-us > -os > -o</i>.
<p><sup>19</sup> Classical <i>leilae.</i>
<p><sup>20</sup> Classical <i>altrei uraduit</i>. Since the final <i>-t</i> was no longer pronounced, putting it back in writing was a feat of memory, easily botched. Same story with <i>uraduit letecoit</i> farther on.
<p><sup>21</sup> Misspelled <i>zennom</i>. /e/ could be spelled <i>e, ae, </i>or <i>ei,</i> and writers often got it wrong.
<p><sup>22</sup> The placement of the verb is not random; but it's not simple. Often the key is topic/comment: the newest information in this sentence, for instance, is that Aevetal now understands, so <i>cumpreninet</i> is placed last. Brevity was another factor: the verb was more likely to appear last in simple sentences, such as the first one in the passage, <i>Khegiaidhit Aevetalan adveitiont.</i>
<h3><a name="Medieval"><font color="#000060">Medieval Scholarly Cadhinor: Mesheli Cördi, 3032</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
This passage come from the <i>Dascora Naurondae</i> (World Bestiary), by Mesheli Cördi, a noblewoman and scholar from Celebes (now the capital of Peleu, then ruled by Verduria). The reader may be interested to look up <i>losu</i> in a Verdurian or Axunashin dictionary to see what animal is being described. The book is full of such monsters, distorted or simply imaginary; but it should be noted that the sections on the domestic and game animals of the Plain are based on an expert knowledge that would put modern city dwellers to shame.
<p>The spelling and morphology are almost entirely correct; but the syntax is largely that of Verdurian, down to the placement of the verb, the use of <i>soh</i> as a definite article, and of <i>illu</i> as a pronoun. Nor is it simply chance that the dynamic aspect and the ablative are not used; these are quite rare in medieval Cadhinor.
<p>The medieval minuscule is used throughout, except that the initial letter and a few important words are written in majuscules. Ancient learning was being revived at this time, and the use of classical letterforms as decoration was fashionable. The native text is shown with standard diacritics and abbreviations (ua = â, ia = ä, cum = cm, er = +), but I have expanded these in the transliteration. (Cördi uses others as well, which are difficult to represent in a printed font.)
<p><center><img src="illo/cadhex6.gif" title="Cordi"></center>
<p><b>Im silvein Akhuenaie lacet holiorastes ecais</b><b><font size=2><sup>1</b></sup></font><b> kae zeth nomet losu. Es talo bolge dia gurie</b><b><font size=2><sup>2</b></sup></font><b>, ac ir iuban nacitet suher koban rog cum iulin vehendei</b><b><font size=2><sup>3</b></sup></font><b>, ac tal espise er bolge dia arbit. Soho dasco creget fueluim er sucursuim</b><b><font size=2><sup>4</b></sup></font><b>, ac keda leilet urestum</b><b><font size=2><sup>5</b></sup></font><b>, sitra tombetis</b><b><font size=2><sup>6</b></sup></font><b> akh illun, er illeth kumpemet khupe ungenagein zehie, kahe sont talet bolget dia tinet. Strelis bu epes illeth kekan; sohit akhueneit illeth iagont</b><b><font size=2><sup>7</b></sup></font><b> cum espuilein urokelein is rogin illui mesmei. Soh rogos es tal zol dia kol er tene deisi burukhi; soha scalte zeth burukhet cum iulin toscascei</b><b><font size=2><sup>8</b></sup></font><b> paltoi; er soho khepato akhhegiet akh tersein malneicein kettot sceset khuptosceio</b><b><font size=2><sup>9</b></sup></font><b> endie.
<p></b>In the forests of Xurno lives a very fearsome monster called the losu. It is as large as a lion, but rather than a mane, it carries on its head horns like a deer's, but as thick and large as trees. The animal eats leaves and branches, but if it sees a man, it will immediately charge, and trample him to death under its hooves, which are as large as plates. An arrow cannot kill it; the Xurnese hunt it with spears made of its own horns. The horn is as strong as iron and has several uses; the hide makes a very warm coat; and the liver is proof against all maladies caused by deficit of wood.
<h4><a name="Notes"><font color="#000060">Notes</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<sup>1</sup> An error for <i>encais</i>, influenced by V. <i>ecai</i>.
<p><sup>2</sup> The similarity to V. <i>E otál bolyáshe dy gurë</i> is evident (the adjective <i>tal</i> is substituted since there is no cognate to <i>otál</i>). In classical Cadhinor this would be a comparative expression: <i>Bolgedhes gurien bues</i>.
<p><sup>3</sup> Though <i>cum iulin vehendei</i> is good Cadhinor, it's chosen largely because of its afinity to V. <i>com</i>. There were other ways of expressing a simile in classical Cadhinor; e.g. <i>pellesmes vehendan</i>.
<p><sup>4</sup> This should be <i>sucursui</i>, but writers often missed the distinctive pl. acc. ending of the uncommon neuters in <i>-us</i>.
<p><sup>5</sup> Classical writers would use the ablative of role: <i>Urestum leilecoth</i>. Medieval writers knew that <i>esli</i> 'if' was not Cadhinor, so they substituted <i>keda</i> 'when'.
<p><sup>6</sup> Placing the main clause in a conditional in the remote is correct; but from other passages it is clear that Cördi is actually using the remote as a future tense here. Also note that <i>tombir akh</i> is a Verdurianism (classical Cadhinor would probably have <i>cutec</i>). <i>Kumpen</i> farther on is a frank borrowing.
<p><sup>7</sup> An error for <i>iagent</i>; keeping the <i>-en</i> and<i> -an</i> conjugations distinct was difficult for the medievals.
<p><sup>8</sup> <i>Tosces</i> 'sufficient' for 'warm' is a Verdurianism; classical Cadhinor would be <i>bucalnes</i>. <i>Akhkhegian</i> farther on is a calque on OV <i>akhezhan; </i>classical Cadhinor would simply use <i>khegian</i>.
<p><sup>9</sup> An error for <i>khupetosceio</i>, influenced by V. <i>hiptosheo</i>. Note that Cadhinorian medicine, after two thousand years, is still based on surfeits and deficits of the seven elements.
<h2><a name="5.7"><font color="#000060">Cadhinor to Verdurian sound changes</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
The following <b>regular sound changes</b> have been identified in the transition from Cadhinor to the standard Mazhtane dialect of Verdurian.
(For sound changes in <a href="bara.htm">Barakhinei</a> and <a href="ismain.htm">Ismaîn</a>, see the web pages covering those languages; for sound changes in Verdurian dialects, see the <a href="refs.htm"><i>Grammar of Verdurian</i></a>.)
<p>My intent is to state the sound changes in a systematic and parsimonious manner--
not to reconstruct a rigorous chronological sequence.
Such a sequence (if we had sufficient evidence to produce it)
would certainly be much more complex, and show intermediate
stages, e.g. sc > shc > shkh > sh.
<p>With these caveats, it is fair to suggest that the
rules up through v > f / _#, about halfway through the list,
correspond to the transition from Cadhinor to <b>Old Verdurian</b>, and the remaining rules to that from Old Verdurian to modern Verdurian.
<p>I have not, of course, attempted to cover <b>irregular changes</b> such as
dissimilation (<i>garorion > garlo</i>) and assimilation (<i>rampan > rappan</i>),
metathesis (<i>guesres > grueses > gröse, bidno > bindo</i>),
analogy (<i>nikeda > nikagdá</i> by analogy with <i>fsëgdá</i>),
abbreviation (<i>tasimurca > murca</i>),
or partial reborrowing from Cadhinor (<i>Aecton > Ezhon > Aezhon</i>).
<p>The Verdurian word may also have an unexpected form because it was borrowed from
a dialect (e.g. <i>luomos</i> from Arániceri, <i>chehen</i> from Zhésifoni, <i>crator</i> from the Eärdur,
in place of the expected <i>lom, tehen, cuator</i>),
or because it derives from a diminutive (<i>koshka</i> isn't an unexpected reflex of <i>kosca</i>; it's from OV <i>koshka</i>)
or simply because of spelling variations (e.g. <i>budhaye, helyata, tshur</i> for expected <i>budhae, heliata, chur</i>).
<p>Since Mazhtane derives from a northern dialect rather than from that of Ctésifon,
some of these "sound changes" are really predictions of ancient northern forms (e.g. the p --> f fricativization),
or different ancient lexemes (<i>koza < *konsa</i>, for standard Cadhinor <i>consa</i>).
<p>Note: û and ô represent intermediate forms required to explain the derivation of nouns in <i>-us</i> and <i>-os</i>.
They were probably at first laxed variants of <i>u</i> and <i>o</i>, but <i>ô</i>, before being
lost, was very likely a shwa, as its reflex still is in Ismaîn.
Other laxing rules applied (inasmuch as they are needed for other dialects, and Barakhinei as well),
but have been omitted here as they are not needed to explain the development of Mazhtane.
<p>These sound changes (plus a few required for common lexical items or spelling rules) are also available in <a href="verd.sc">a Sound Change Applier file</a>.
<p>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td colspan=6 ><i>Abbreviations (others explained in Notes)</i>
<tr><td><b>F</b> <td>front vowel (i, e)
<td><b>O</b> <td>a stressed vowel (á, ...)
<td><b>V</b> <td>any vowel
<tr><td><b>B</b> <td>back vowel (u, o)
<td><b>N</b> <td>an unstressed vowel
<td><b>C</b> <td>any consonant
<tr><td><b>H</b> <td>high vowel (i, u)
<td> <td>
<td><b>A</b> <td>any phoneme
</table>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><i>From</i> <td><i>To</i> <td><i>Environment</i> <td><i>Example</i> <td><i>Notes</i>
<tr><td>i <td>zh <td>#_B <td><i>iusir > zhusir </i>
<tr><td>kh <td>k <td>V_# <td><i>akh > ak </i>
<tr><td>p <td>f <td>#_F(V)XV <td><i>pelos > fel </i><td>X = fricatives, liquids, nasals
<tr><td>F <td>î <td>_D# <td><i>ecunit > ecunî </i><td>D = dental stop/fricative; F not stressed
<tr><td>u <td>û <td>_s# <td><i>manus > manûs > mano </i>
<tr><td>o <td>ô <td>_s# <td><i>kronos > kronô > rhon </i>
<tr><td>i <td>ø<td>V_m# <td><i>dascoim > dascom </i><td>also unstress the V
<tr><td>ns <td>z <td>_A <td><i>pronsen > prozen </i><td>except before ô
<tr><td>s <td>ø<td>V_# <td><i>lebes > lebe </i>
<tr><td>s <td>ø<td>#e_(p,t) <td><i>espices > epese, estol --> etol </i>
<tr><td>s <td>ø<td>A_l <td><i>ereslos > erél </i>
<tr><td>s <td>ø<td>V_n <td><i>palasnos > palán </i>
<tr><td>eu, ue <td>ö <td>_A <td><i>kuebis > köby, leukol > lökol </i>+
<tr><td>kh <td>rh <td>V_B <td><i>kokhu > korhu </i>
<tr><td>khr <td>rh <td> <td><i>khris > rhis </i>
<tr><td>p <td>f <td>s_ <td><i>spakhe > sfahe </i>
<tr><td>p <td>f <td>_s, _t <td><i>psis > fsiy. ptena > ftena </i>
<tr><td>d <td>z <td>V_H, Vi_V <td><i>adures > azure, creidas > creza </i>
<tr><td>t <td>ch <td>(V,#)_H <td><i>til > chil, netuan > nechan </i>
<tr><td>sc <td>sh <td> <td><i>scoru > shoru </i>
<tr><td>c <td>s <td>_F, Vi_V <td><i>cisir > sisir, giveica > zhivesa </i>
<tr><td>c <td>s <td>_n <td><i>aracnis > arasni </i>
<tr><td>t <td>ø<td>c_# <td><i>dect > dec </i>
<tr><td>ct <td>zh <td> <td><i>ctores > zhore </i>
<tr><td>g <td>zh <td>(V,#,r)_F <td><i>gina > zhina, lagec > lazhec, borges > borzhe </i>
<tr><td>k <td>c <td>_i <td><i>kira > cira </i>
<tr><td>i <td>zh <td>V_u <td><i>aiubren > azhuven </i>
<tr><td>i <td>ø<td>é_V(n)# <td><i>cadeio > cadeo </i>
<tr><td>i <td>y <td>(V,#)_V <td><i>velaia >vlaya, iacnis > yasny </i>
<tr><td>û <td>o <td> <td><i>manus > manûs > mano </i>
<tr><td>dr <td>d <td>V_F <td><i>sudrir > sudir </i>
<tr><td>tr <td>ch <td>F_V, V_F <td><i>etromos > echom, motrir > mochir </i>
<tr><td>tr <td>ch <td>V_ô <td><i>pietros > pëch </i>
<tr><td>cth <td>ch <td> <td><i>Nectheruon > Necheron </i>
<tr><td>ion <td>o <td>C_# <td><i>scirion > shiro, luteion > luteon </i>
<tr><td>si <td>sh <td>_V <td><i>desien > deshen </i>
<tr><td>ô <td>ø<td> <td><i>kronos > kronô > rho </i>
<tr><td>kr <td>rh <td> <td><i>krase > rhase </i>
<tr><td>th <td>dh <td>V_V <td><i>letha > ledha </i>
<tr><td>th <td>t <td> <td><i>thikhis > tihy </i>
<tr><td>v <td>f <td>_# <td><i>leivos > leiv > lef </i>
<tr><td>íle<td>ë <td>A_ <td><i>tusile > chusë </i>
<tr><td>íl <td>í<td>A_V <td><i>grilu > griu </i>
<tr><td>il <td>y <td>A_V <td><i>milaso > myaso </i>
<tr><td>u, e <td>ø<td>OC_a# <td><i>akulua > akula, scamea > shama </i>
<tr><td>ae <td>e <td> <td><i>caer > cer </i>
<tr><td>ei <td>e <td>_A <td><i>speica > sfesa </i><td>but not if i is part of an ending
<tr><td>iu, ui <td>ü <td>_A <td><i>liubor > lübor, uil > ül </i>
<tr><td>br <td>v <td>A_ <td>subran > suvan </i>
<tr><td>r <td>ø<td>#(C)u_(á,é)C <td><i>murand > muán, urestu > uestu </i>
<tr><td>i <td>ø<td>(ch,zh)_V <td><i>tiel > chiel > chel, fagiolo > fazhiolo > fazholo </i>
<tr><td>i <td>ø<td>Az_V <td><i>baedia > bezia > beza </i>
<tr><td>H <td>ø<td>ch_N <td><i>latuan > lachan </i>
<tr><td>ai <td>a <td>_A <td><i>aidhos > adh </i>
<tr><td>áu <td>ä <td>_A <td><i>caucel > cäsel </i>
<tr><td>au <td>a <td>_A <td><i>laubrisir > lavisir </i>
<tr><td>ie <td>ë <td>_# <td><i>melie > melë </i>
<tr><td>ié <td>ë <td> <td><i>piedros > për </i>
<tr><td>i <td>y <td>_ó <td><i>riotos > ryot </i>
<tr><td>uo <td>o <td>C_ <td><i>thuor > tor </i>
<tr><td>u <td>ø<td>ó_ <td><i>dhoulos > dhol </i>
<tr><td>h <td>y <td>ú_a, a_ú <td><i>duha > duya, ahurec > ayurec </i>
<tr><td>h <td>y <td>ó_i<td><i>rohir > royir </i>
<tr><td>h <td>ø<td> <td><i>vehatha > veadha </i>
<tr><td>kh <td>h <td> <td><i>khutor > hutor </i>
<tr><td>e <td>ø<td>_BA <td><i>andeor > andor </i><td>unaccented e only
<tr><td>on <td>u <td>_K <td><i>ilontis > iluti </i><td>C is not d or y
<tr><td>nd <td>n <td> <td><i>cumunda > cumuna </i><td> except énd, índ, ndo
<tr><td>nt <td>t <td>V_V <td><i>yantar > yatar </i>
<tr><td>ng <td>ny <td> <td><i>unge > unye </i><td>except before u
<tr><td>lg <td>ly <td> <td><i>culgo > cuyo </i>
<tr><td>e, a, o <td>ø<td>O(n,m)_rN <td><i>tiamora > chamra > chambra </i>
<tr><td>l <td>u <td>_S# <td><i>kolpos > koup </i><td>S = non-dental stops
<tr><td>l <td>u <td>_SA <td><i>khaltes > haute </i><td>S = stops
<tr><td>d <td>ø<td>r_#, _r# <td><i>homardos > omár, cuedros > cör </i>
<tr><td>t <td>ø<td>r_# <td><i>suertos > sör </i>
<tr><td>b <td>ø<td>m_# <td><i>bembos > bem </i>
<tr><td>V <td>ø<td>OC_CN(C)# <td><i>veredes > verde </i>
<tr><td>V <td>ø<td>NZ_COA <td><i>khunodotis > hunodochi > hundochi </i><td>Z = one of lr nm ptck s
<tr><td>e <td>ø<td>#(f,v,s)_lO <td><i>pelasner > felaner > flaner </i>
<tr><td>m <td>mb <td>_r <td><i>tiamora > chamra > chambra </i>
<tr><td>n <td>nd <td>_r <td><i>zonres > zondre </i>
<tr><td>n <td>ø<td>_m <td><i>aetanima > etanma > etama </i>
<tr><td>s <td>ø<td>_m <td><i>bekasmes > bekame </i>
<tr><td>s <td>ø<td>_r <td><i>cumdisres > cunire </i>
<tr><td>h <td>ø<td>_C <td><i>akhnusian > ahnushan > anushan </i><td>C is not d or y
<tr><td>h <td>ø<td>r_ <td><i>esarkh > esar </i>
<tr><td>D <td>ø<td>î_ <td><i>ecunit > ecunî </i><td>D = dental stop/fricative; F not stressed
<tr><td>rr <td>r <td> <td><i>garra > gara </i>
<tr><td>ér <td>ë <td>_C <td><i>acernos > asën </i> <td>C is not d or y
<tr><td>ín <td>ü <td>_C <td><i>ninsos > nüs </i><td>C is not d or y
<tr><td>én <td>ë <td>_C <td><i>dennos > dën </i><td>C is not d or y
<tr><td>en <td>e <td>_C(C)(C)O <td><i>lenkarion > lekaro </i><td>C is not d or y
<tr><td>ns <td>z <td>_# <td><i>falens > falez </i>
<tr><td>CC <td>C <td> <td><i>agella > azhela </i><td>i.e., doubled consonants lost
<tr><td>d <td>t <td>_t <td><i>medeta > metta </i>
<tr><td>m <td>n <td>_D <td><i>comitos > comt > cont </i><td>D = dental stop/fricative
<tr><td>ye <td>ë <td>_# <td><i>nenges > nenye > nenë </i>
<tr><td>i <td>ø<td>y_# <td><i>milgis > milyi > mili > mily </i>
<tr><td>VV <td>V <td> <td><i>culda > cuuda > cuda </i><td>don't change ä; treat iy as ii
</table>
<h2><a name="5.4"><font color="#000060">Derivational morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
<h3><a name="General"><font color="#000060">General</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Negative <b>bu</b>-:
<blockquote> <b>dhahes</b> correct > <b>budhahes</b> incorrect <br><b>merir</b> measure > <b>bumeril</b> unmeasured
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Nominalization"><font color="#000060">Nominalization</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Naming a simple action: -<b>ei</b>-:
<blockquote>
<b>cregen</b> eat > <b>cregeio</b> eating
<br><b>scalean</b> breathe > <b>scaleia</b> breath
</blockquote>
<p>Process, action, or result: -<b>eica</b> (often -<b>eca</b> after double consonants, for N conjugation and adjectives only)
<blockquote>
<b>gives</b> lively > <b>giveica</b> liveliness
<br><b>leilen</b> see > <b>leileica</b> vision, faith
</blockquote>
<p>Abstraction, art, or state: -<b>antos</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>raulan</b> cook > <b>raulantos</b> cookery
<br><b>aeluities</b> virtuous > <b>aeluitantos</b> virtuousness
</blockquote>
<p>What results from an action: -<b>el</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>sudrir</b> decide > <b>sudrel</b> decision
<br><b>adaecten</b> fetch > <b>adaectel</b> cost
</blockquote>
<p>Associated or resulting object : -<b>ile</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>gunen</b> arm > <b>gunile</b> armor
<br><b>minga</b> mat > <b>mingile</b> paper
<br><b>parir</b> bet > <b>parile</b> bet
<br><b>sadu</b> prince > <b>saduile</b> highness
</blockquote>
<p>Collection of things: -<b>ora</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>khostos</b> bone > <b>khostora</b> skeleton
<br><b>kestos</b> thing > <b>kestora</b> philosphy
</blockquote>
<p>Collective (viewed more as a unit than formations of -<i>ora</i>): -<b>ta</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>scrifec </b>know > <b>scrifta </b>knowledge
<br><b>nuric</b> providing > <b>nuricta</b> provisions
<br><b>oreises</b> most true > <b>oreista</b> truth
<br><b>peric</b> mourner > <b>pericta </b>funeral entourage
<br><b>falakh </b>soldier > <b>falakhta </b>army
<br><b>helgaios</b> olive > <b>helgaita</b> olive grove
</blockquote>
<p>Associated action or object: -<b>ura</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>barekh</b> arm > <b>barekhura</b> armful
<br><b>londos</b> honor > <b>londuran</b> appoint
<br><b>kilima</b> hill > <b>kilimura</b> column
</blockquote>
<p>Person in charge: m. -(<b>r</b>)<b>ion</b>, f. -(<b>r</b>)<b>eis</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>kescanda</b> borough > <b>kescarion</b>, <b>kescarieis</b> steward(ess)
<br><b>sul</b> alone > <b>sulorion, suloreis</b> hermit, member of a religious order
<br><b>vacus</b> shrine > <b>vacurion</b> priest of such a shrine
</blockquote>
<p>Area: -<b>anda</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>satres</b> sovereign > <b>satranda</b> autonomous area
<br><b>comitos</b> government overseer > <b>comitanda</b> overseer's jurisdiction
</blockquote>
<p>Augmentive -<b>unda</b>, -<b>onda</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>ber</b> mist > <b>berundos</b> fog
<br><b>cuma</b> hearth > <b>cumunda</b> town
</blockquote>
<p>Diminutive -<b>ima</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>calco</b> heel > <b>calcima</b> knuckle
<br><b>nier</b> holy > <b>nierima</b> shrine
</blockquote>
<p>Sickness: -<b>arda</b>
<blockquote>
<b>dicena</b> gums > <b>dicenarda</b> scurvy
<br><b>agasan</b> poke > <b>agasarda</b> cholera
</blockquote>
<p>Associated tool, place, or object: -<b>ensa</b>
<blockquote>
<b>aiubren</b> retire > <b>aiubrensa</b> country house
<br><b>naget</b> feet > <b>nagensa</b> couch
<br><b>medeta</b> table > <b>medetensa</b> table covering
</blockquote>
<p>Substance (and later, colloquially, tool or object): -<b>osios</b>
<blockquote>
<b>glitan</b> stick together > <b>glitosios</b> glue
<br><b>melie</b> bee > <b>melosios</b> honey
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Adjectivization"><font color="#000060">Adjectivization</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Noun to adjective: add -<b>ises</b> or -<b>etes</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>cira</b> body > <b>cirises</b> physical
<br><b>zandis</b> meaning > <b>zandetes</b> meaninful
<br><b>nirus</b> machine > <b>niruises</b> mechanical
</blockquote>
<p>Associate adjective: -<b>r</b>-:
<blockquote>
<b>aeca</b> needle > <b>aecres</b> sharp
<br><b>licis</b> barren > <b>licres</b> poor
<br><b>ponos</b> warrior > <b>ponres</b> manly, brave
<br><b>rukh</b> speed > <b>rukhris</b> fast
</blockquote>
<p>Characteristic of: -<b>il</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>elir</b> life > <b>elil</b> lively
<br><b>fasa</b> front > <b>fasil</b> straightforward
<br><b>khucua</b> gods' house, oracle > <b>khucil</b> prophetic
</blockquote>
<p>Quality: -<b>nes</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>fadha</b> patience > <b>fadhenes</b> patient
<br><b>flaia</b> flat surface > <b>flanes</b> flat
<br><b>litis</b> quarrel > <b>litnes</b> quarrelsome
<br><b>mal</b> bad > <b>malnes</b> sick
</blockquote>
<p>Tendency toward: -<b>esmes</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>garos</b> common sense > <b>garesmes</b> sensible
<br><b>teker</b> stand > <b>tekresmes</b> solid
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Verbalization"><font color="#000060">Verbalization</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Some simple verbs share the same root as the associated noun:
<blockquote>
<b>crivos</b> scroll > <b>crivan</b> write
<br><b>culpa</b> blame > <b>culpir</b> be guilty
<br><b>elir</b> life > <b>elirec</b> live
<br><b>nou</b> rain > <b>noer</b> rain
<br><b>remos</b> oar > <b>remir</b> row
</blockquote>
<p>Another common verbalization is -<b>dan</b> or -<b>nden</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>lennos</b> line > <b>delendan</b> disarrange
<br><b>mehu</b> furrow > <b>mehunden</b> plow
<br><b>ogonos</b> flame > <b>ogondir</b> roast
<br><b>reth</b> far > <b>rethunden</b> extend
<br><b>tom</b> thump > (assimilated) <b>tombir</b> fall, drop
<br><b>zennos</b> sign > <b>zendan</b> indicate
</blockquote>
<p>Make, go: -<b>bren</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>dhuos</b> frown (n.) > <b>dhubren</b> frown (v.)
<br><b>is</b> out, away > <b>isubren</b> go out
<br><b>tras</b> over, beyond > <b>trabren</b> go too far
</blockquote>
<p>A causative <b>-icer</b> is used mostly with adjectives:
<blockquote>
<b>faliles</b> white > <b>falilicer</b> whiten
<br><b>ctodos</b> anger > <b>ctodicer</b> make angry
<br><b>perir</b> (<i>originally</i>) fear > <b>pericer</b> threaten
<br><b>scoli</b> how much > <b>scolicer</b> cost
</blockquote>
<p>Use a part of the body: -<b>atir</b> (by extension, used as a general depreciative suffix):
<blockquote>
<b>pillis</b> eyelash > <b>pillatir</b> blink
<br><b>nogen</b> squeeze > <b>nogatir</b> charge interest
</blockquote>
<p>Do prolongedly: -<b>ins</b>- (and by extension, interminably or badly):
<blockquote>
<b>emec</b> talk > <b>eminsec</b> prattle on
<br><b>noer</b> rain > <b>noinser</b> rain long and hard
<br><b>prosan</b> walk > <b>prosinsan</b> promenade
</blockquote>
<p>Do again: <b>ren</b>-:
<blockquote>
<b>emec</b> say > <b>renemec</b> repeat
<br><b>leilen</b> see > <b>renleilen</b> see again
<br><b>laudan</b> go > <b>renlaudan</b> return
</blockquote>
<p>Numerous verbs are formed by the addition of a preposition. Such verbs generally have no dynamic aspect (since the verb itself has a dynamic meaning).
<blockquote>
<b>leilen</b> see > <b>irleilen</b> oversee
<br><b>mettan</b> put > <b>demettan</b> subtract
<br><b>nusian</b> be determined ><b>akhnusian</b> oppose
<br><b>veiten</b> speechify > <b>adveiten</b> answer
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Compounds"><font color="#000060">Compounds</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Compounds can be fairly freely formed in Cadhinor. Some examples:
<blockquote>
<b>aelu</b> this + <b>dennoth</b> day (abl.) > <b>aeludennoth</b> today
<br><b>aidhos</b> god + <b>clithec</b> speak for > <b>aidhoclithus</b> godspeaker (priest)
<br><b>caepos</b> chain + <b>sanno</b> lord > <b>caeposanno</b> castle commander
<br><b>cuma</b> hearth + <b>gina</b> girl > <b>cumagina</b> girlfriend
<br><b>furan</b> feign + <b>aeluthres</b> virtuous > <b>furaeluthres</b> hypocritical
<br><b>gula</b> bile + <b>labanis</b> tongue > <b>gulabanres</b> acid-tongued
<br><b>khice</b> number + <b>scrifta</b> knowledge > <b>khicescrifta</b> accounting
<br><b>lebes</b> new + <b>tractul</b> dragged (in) > <b>lebtractul</b> newcomer
<br><b>magnos</b> stomach + <b>tibri</b> pain > <b>magnotibri</b> stomach pain
<br><b>ras</b> against + <b>polege</b> position > <b>raspolege</b> inclination, affection
</blockquote>
<p>The combination form of a noun is generally the nominative, minus any final -<b>s</b>: e.g. <b>aidho</b>- from <b>aidhos</b> 'god'.
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