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<H2><img src="barname.gif" align=absmiddle> Barakhinei </H2>
<i>Barakhinei is a sister language of Verdurian, spoken in the mountain
lands of Barakhún, Mútkün, and Hroth.
Verdurians think it sounds harsh and primitive... of course, the
Barakhinei consider the Verdurians to be spineless degenerates. Barakhinei has its own alphabet, and perhaps its most notable feature is the important sex differences: in effect, there are separate male and female dialects.</i>
<p><a name="contents">© 1999 by Mark Rosenfelder</a>
<p><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="#Introduction">Introduction</a>
* <font size=-1><i>
<a href="#History">History</a>
<a href="#Dialects">Dialects</a>
<a href="#Gender">Gender differences</a>
</i></font>
<br><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="#Phonology">Phonology</a>
* <font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Dialectal">Dialectal variations</a>
<a href="#Stress">Stress accent</a>
<a href="#Orthography">Orthography</a>
</i></font>
<br><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="#Sound">Sound changes from Caďinor</a>
<br><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="#Morphology">Morphology</a>
* <font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Nominal">Nominal declension</a>
<a href="#Adjectives">Adjectives</a>
<a href="#Pronouns">Pronouns</a>
<a href="#Numbers">Numbers</a>
<a href="#Conjugation ">Conjugation </a>
</i></font>
<br><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="#Derivational">Derivational morphology</a>
* <font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Nominalizers">Nominalizers</a>
<a href="#Adjectivizers">Adjectivizers</a>
<a href="#Verbalizers">Verbalizers</a>
</i></font>
<br><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="#Syntax">Syntax</a>
* <font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Constituent">Constituent order</a>
<a href="#Noun">Noun phrases</a>
<a href="#Articles">Articles</a>
<a href="#Case">Case usage</a>
<a href="#Second">2p pronouns</a>
<a href="#subjunctive">The subjunctive</a>
<a href="#Prepositions">Prepositions</a>
<a href="#Phatic">Phatic particles</a>
<a href="#Negation">Negation</a>
<a href="#Questions">Questions</a>
<a href="#Clauses">Clauses</a>
</i></font>
<br><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="#References">References</a>
* <font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Conventional">Conventional expressions</a>
<a href="#Calendar">Calendar</a>
<a href="#Names">Names</a>
</i></font>
<br><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="#Example">Example</a>
<br><IMG Align=Top SRC="greenball.gif"><a href="baralex.htm">Lexicon</a>
<hr>
<p><img align=left src="baramap.jpg" alt="Map of Barakhun">
<h2><a name="Introduction"><font color="#000060">Introduction</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
Barakhinei, like Verdurian, Ismaîn and Sarroc a descendant of Caďinor, is spoken in the kingdoms of Rhânor, Barakhún, Hroth, and Mútkün, west of Verduria. Barakhinei scholars like to consider Benécian and Bešbalicue as dialects of their language, while Verdurians consider them dialects of Verdurian.
<p><i>The map is labelled entirely in Barakhinei. </i>Ferediri<i> is Barakhinei for "Verduria".
For Verdurian names see <a href="drill3.htm">the Eretald map.</a></i>
<h3><a name="History"><font color="#000060">History</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Although the state of Barakhún was organized c. 2830, by the Caďinorian princes of the Eärdur made independent by the Curiyan occupation of Ctésifon forty years before, the official business of both state and temple was conducted in Caďinor. (That of the Arashei Church, strong in this area, was still conducted in ancient Cuêzi.) We have only snatches of 'Old Barakhinei' from this period; e.g. from the Glosses of Kâmbrek, which explained difficult words in the Aďivro.
<p>A feudal state that had no truck with modernity, Barakhún, unlike Verduria, perceived no need to write its few documents in the vernacular; it produced no literature except official annals and religious exhortations; and trade beyond the shop level was carried out by foreigners, mostly Verdurians. Ironically-- for the Barakhinei are a warlike, male-dominant culture-- it was women who first developed Barakhinei as a written language. Noblewomen were taught to read Caďinor, but were rarely given enough instruction to write fluently in it; at the same time, armies of servants made them the only leisured class in the country. Our first texts (of more than a line or two) are letters from one noblewoman to another.
<p>By the reign of Lombekh (d. 3110), father of Ambekh the Great, women such as Ilitira, Kondên and Tizati were writing romances, poems, and essays in Barakhinei. Within a century they were joined by men; and when the Union of Eleďi and Arašei was accepted in Barakhún (in 3225, more than two centuries after its promulgation in Avéla), Eleďe clerics began preaching in the vernacular, and we begin to find sermons, lives of saints, and devotional manuals in Barakhinei.
<p>It was not till the 3300s that official documents were written in Barakhinei in Barakhún, Hroth, and Mútkün. (Rhânor is a special case; it is too primitive to have official documents; but women and clerics are likely to know how to read.)
<p><font size=-1 color="#000000">The usual spellings of all three of these countries in Almean studies differ from the transliteration used in this chapter, under which they would be Barakhun, Rhoth, and Mutkhun. The accents simply indicate the placement of the stress, which is not indicated in the Barakhinei alphabet; the other variations reflect local dialect pronunciations. </font>
<p>Given this history, it should not be surprising that earlier forms of the language are available only accidently, or via internal reconstruction; and that very few serious scholarly resources exist. The best Barakhinei grammar is that of the University of Verduria (<i>Aluatas Šriftanáei Barahineë</i>); the best native work is the <i>Fisnava Rhuo Barakhinei</i> by Ekuntâl of Sûlekeros.
<h3><a name="Dialects"><font color="#000060">Dialects</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The Barakhinei like to say that each of the princes who came together to form Barakhún had his own dialect, which has been perpetuated in his hereditary domain. It is true that each princedom (<i>ekunor</i>) tends to have its own fairly homogenous speech variety. A more useful grouping, however, is into three dialects:<ul>
<li> <b>Western</b> (<i>têl rhu</i>), including Barakhún, Rhânor, and the Barakhinei-speaking portions of the Western Wild.
<li> <b>Central</b> (<i>êrrê rhu</i>), including Mútkün and the northernmost principality of Hroth.
<li> <b>Southern </b>(<i>âr rhu</i>), comprising the remaining six princedoms of Hroth. </ul>
This chapter describes the Western dialect; in particular, that of Barakhina, the capital of Barakhún. Some significant phonological and other differences from the other dialects are noted.
<h3><a name="Gender"><font color="#000060">Gender differences</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
One of the more striking features of Barakhinei is the divergence between masculine (<i>kê rhu</i>) and feminine speech (<i>honê rhu</i>), extending to every level of the grammar: phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon.<ul>
<li> Women palatalize more consonants: n, l before front vowels become nh, lh. Their sh tends to be alveolo-palatal s' (and th before a stop), their ch becomes ts, and their kh is pronounced [ç]. Men, on the other hand, tend to nasalize vowels before -n or -m, to weaken unstressed vowels, and to strongly aspirate their stops.
<li> Women avoid the dative, using <b>a</b> + the accusative instead.
<li> Women always use the second person pronoun <b>lê</b>, while men substitute titles for peers and superiors.
<li> Women use a wider variety of synthetic verb tenses, and (speaking to peers or superiors) use the subjunctive in place of the imperative.
<li> There are a number of distinctive particles used by one sex or the other, and different meanings for lexical items. Women are much more likely to use Verdurian loanwords; men more likely to use reborrowings from Caďinor.</ul>
This grammatical sketch follows the neutral register and orthography used in formal contexts, and taught to foreigners. Interesting gender deviations are noted.
<h2><a name="Phonology"><font color="#000060">Phonology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
The sounds of Barakhinei, in <font color="#0000FF">Barakhinei orthography</font>, <font color="#FF0000">IPA equivalent</font>, and transliteration.
<p><img src="barsounds.gif" alt="Barakhinei phonology">
<p>[f] and [v] are allophones, [v] appearing only intervocalically; but they are spelled with two different symbols, and Verdurian loan-words retain an initial V, which some attempt to pronounce correctly.
<p>Rather than a random collection of ten vowels, consider the vowel system as consisting of two series of five vowels each, the <b><i>tense</b></i> vowels <b>i e a o u</b> and a <b><i>lax</b></i> series <b>î ê â ô û</b>. Alternations between tense and lax vowels are common in Barakhinei morphology.
<p>Final <b>î</b>, and post-stress <b>û</b>, are pronounced [<sup>e</sup>]. Other vocalic reductions of unstressed syllables are characteristic of Southern dialect and of male speech.
<h4><a name="Dialectal"><font color="#000060">Dialectal variations</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
In the <b>Central</b> dialect, rounded front vowels <b>ü</b>, <b>ö</b> exist, perhaps due to interaction with Verdurian: compare Central <i>sülê</i>, Western <i>silê</i> 'young'. Some Central dialect speakers are known for dropping intervocalic voiced occlusives after the stress accent (<i>rh<u>e</i></u><i>dê</i> --> <i>rhe'ê</i>, <i>mi<u>a</i></u><i>bor</i> --> <i>mia'or</i>) and for voicing <b>sh</b> before a stop (<i>mashtan --> mazhtan</i>).
<p>In addition, <b>ô</b> tends to lower to [<i>a</i>] (pushing <b>a</b> to [a]); thus Verdurian borrowings like <i>iladil, ďarim</i> from <i>ilôdil, dhorind</i>.
<p><b>Southern</b> dialect is known for pronouncing <b>rh</b> as an unvoiced aspirated r-- thus the spelling <i>Hroth</i>, spelled <i>Rhoth</i> in the transliteration used here. (This spelling also hints at the southern spelling <b>rc</b> for northern <b>rh</b>.)
<p>It's also known for the deaffrication of <b>ch</b> to palatal c, the fricativization of
intervocalic velar stops (<b>k</b> --> kh, <b>g</b> to gh),
<h4><a name="Stress"><font color="#000060">Stress accent</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The <b>stress accent</b> normally falls on the <b>last closed syllable</b>: thus <i>ov<u>o</i></u><i>ri, kal<u>e</i></u><i>n, cham<u>o</i></u><i>r, <u>a</i></u><i>nu</i>. Any word that does not follow this rule is marked in the lexicon. However, there are some sub-patterns that can help:
<ul>
<li> Epenthetic vowels are not stressed: <i>ch<u>i</u>tor, er<u>ê</i></u><i>sûl
</i>
<li> Roots ending in <b>-l, -kh</b>, or -<b>th</b> are often unstressed: <i><u>ê</i></u><i>shtôl, d<u>o</i></u><i>rôth, <u>e</i></u><i>zarkh</i>
<li> The derivational suffixes -<b>nor</b>, -<b>il</b>, -<b>el</b>, diminutive -<b>ek</b>, and the -<b>dêsht</b> in powers of ten are never stressed: <i>ek<u>u</u>nor, il<u>a</i></u><i>dil, <u>ê</i></u><i>ndel, h<u>e</i></u><i>dêsht, k<u>ê</i></u><i>ntek</i>
<li> The stress is generally on the same syllable as the cognate <font size=-1>CAďINOR</font> or <font color="#008000">Verdurian</font> word:
cf. <font size=-1><i>MACT<u>A</u>NA</i></font>, masht<u>a</u>n, <font color="#008000">mažt<u>a</u>na</font>;
<font size=-1>K<u>I</u>BRU</font>, k<u>i</u>bor, <font color="#008000">c<u>i</u>vru</font></i>;
<font size=-1>V<u>E</u>NERA</font>, f<u>e</u>ter, <font color="#008000">v<u>e</u>ntra</font></i></ul>
<p>Stress is not indicated orthographically.
<h3><a name="Orthography"><font color="#000060">Orthography</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
The Barakhinei lands have their own alphabet, derived from that of Caďinor. (Benécia, Bešbalic, and Ešan use the Verdurian alphabet.)
<p>The alphabet inherited from Caďinor was:
<p><img src="cadhalph.gif">
<p>For a period after the fall of the empire, writing was not used in the mountain lands, except inscribed on stone, or carved into wood. The characters were adapted to be easily produced using these methods:
<p><img src="bararune.gif">
<p>When paper and ink were once again available, the letters were adapted once more to the medium, and a distinctive decorated mountain hand emerged.
<p><img src="baralph.gif">
<p><font size=-1 color="#000000">(The characters shown are based on contemporary Barakhinan scribal handwriting. The letterforms are the same in the other Barakhinei lands, though the details differ. )</font>
The names for the letters are
<blockquote>
<b>u a ô ê i êk
<br>pe kê bê gê dakh
<br>sa thê zash tê dhakh
<br>ra khôth le
<br>mê fa nhê fek hê</b>
</blockquote>
<p>The letters marked <<b>k c</b>> have the values /q k/ and are used as such when writing Caďinor or Verdurian. Only the second character, <<b>c</b>>, is used for the /k/ of Barakhinei.
<p><img src="bardigraph.gif">
<br>Digraphs are used for the new sounds that have developed since Caďinor times. The second character in <b>ch nh lh</b> (<b>ik</b>) derives from a small <b>i</b>; the second character in sh and the middle stroke in rh derive from <b>h</b> and indicate aspiration; both are called <b>hêkek</b>. (<b>rh</b> is considered a digraph, and indeed in Hroth it is written <b>rc</b>.)
<p>The new vowels <b>û â ô ê î</b> are indicated with a diacritic (a <i>bazêl</i> 'lowering'), equivalent to the Verdurian <i>mole</i>, and likewise derived from a miniature <b>u</b>.
<p>The usual Roman transliteration of Barakhinei preserves one of the chief features of the alphabet, the use of digraphs. Admittedly, however, the transcription is not entirely accurate-- we should write <b>dh th kh</b> as single characers, as in the preferred transliteration of Verdurian; and perhaps we should write <b>kj nj lj</b> rather than <b>ch nh lh</b>. On the other hand, the transliteration emphasizes the difference from Verdurian, reminding us that (say) <i><font color="#008000">čun</font></i> and <i>chund, <font color="#008000">hum</font></i> and <i>khum, <font color="#008000">zon</font></i> and <i>zôn</i> look quite different to Almeans: <IMG Align=Top SRC="barcompare.gif">.
<p>The <b>ö ü</b> of Central dialect are written <b>o u</b> (i.e. without a diacritic), or sometimes <b>o<font size=2><sup>e</sup></font> u<font size=2><sup>i</sup></font></b>.
<p><img src="barnum.gif">
<br>The numbers have been adapted from <a href="phonology.htm#numbers">those of Verdurian</a> (except for 7, formed from 6 by analogy).
<p>There are no capital letters, and only two punctuation marks, one used for a pause and one to mark the end of a sentence. There is no exclamation mark or question mark. Words are separated by spaces, but pronouns and particles are not always separated from adjoining words.
<h2><a name="Sound"><font color="#000060">Sound changes from Caďinor</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h2>
<table>
<tr><td>o → u /_[r,m,n]# <td>anor → anur → anu
<tr><td>a → o /_rV <td>aracnis → orakni
<tr><td>s → z /V_V <td>esistes → ezishtê
<tr><td>f → v /V_V <td>oforis → ovori
<tr><td>th → dh /V_V <td>pethuera → pedher
<tr><td>n → ñ /#_e <td>nebri → nhêbor
<tr><td>n → ñ /_iV <td>nies → nhê
<tr><td>ng → ñ /_F <td>vange → fanh
<tr><td>lg → <strike>l</strike> <td>fulgo → fulh
<tr><td>[+nasal] → 0 /r_ <td>cernan → kera, dormir → dôri
<tr><td>s → 0 /o_# <td>calenos → kalen
<tr><td>i → ch /V_V <td>Alameia → Alamech
<tr><td>[+vel] → ch /V_F, #_i <td>lereges → lerchê, cista → chisht
<tr><td>t → ch /_u <td>tuca → chuk
<tr><td>ti → ch /#_V <td>tiamora → chamor
<tr><td>a → ô /_l[+stop] <td>khaltes → khôtê
<tr><td>e → û /_l[+stop] <td>cthelt → kthût
<tr><td>i → 0 /e_ <td>leilen → lelê
<tr><td>ae, ai → â <td>raedhos → râdh, raikh → râkh
<tr><td>eu, eo → û <td>seo → sû, leus → lû
<tr><td>e → ê /_C#, _CC <td>macres → makrê, mergen → mêrgê
<tr><td>o → ô /_C#, _CC <td>estol → êshtôl, bursoncos → bursônk
<tr><td>u → i /_CF <td>lupekh → lipêkh, faucir → faichi
<tr><td>n,m,s → 0 /_# <td>dotis → doti, esan → eza
<tr><td>r,c,t → 0 /CV_# <td>failir → fâli; <i>but</i> aure → air
<tr><td>V → 0 /_# <td>onella → onêl, nare → nor, miscu → mishk
<tr><td>C<font size=2>1</font> → 0 /_C, C = C<font size=2>1</font> <td>pinna → pin
<tr><td>li → <strike>l</strike> /_V <td>Iliages → Ilhachê
<tr><td>r → or /C_# <td>kapro → kapr → kapor
<tr><td>i → e /_l# <td>ladrilo → ladril → ladrel
<tr><td>s → z /n_ <td>nagensa → nachênz
<tr><td>au → ao <td>Endauron → Êndaoru
<tr><td>u → 0 /o_ <td>bounos → bon
<tr><td>ps → shp <td>opser → ôshpê
<tr><td>p → 0 /_t <td>saeptos → sât
<tr><td>s → sh /_S <td>suest → sêsht, scamea → shkame
<tr><td>c → sh /_S <td>mactana → mashtan, ctanen → shtanê
<tr><td>k[+liquid] → rh <td>kredec → rhedê
<tr><td>khr → rh <td>khruis → rhî
<tr><td>i → h /#_V <td>iagen → hachê
<tr><td>u → f /#_V <td>ueronos → feron
<tr><td>ui → î <td>khruis → rhî
<tr><td>iu → î <td>siuro → sîr
<tr><td>l → 0 /_[+stop] <td>khaltes → khôtê
<tr><td>l → 0 /XCu_# <td>kethul → kedhu
<tr><td>l → r /_r <td>gulres → gurrê
<tr><td>k, c → k /_ <td>cassis → kasi, kattis → kati
<tr><td>u → 0 /_V <td>latuan → lacha
<tr><td>v → f /#_, _# <td>volir → foli, kerovos → kerof
<tr><td>h → 0 /V_V <td>mihires → miirê
<tr><td>g → k /_# <td>minga → ming → mink
<tr><td>b → p /_# <td>gribos → grip
<tr><td>gn → ñ /_# <td>cugna → kunh
<tr><td>s → 0 /_ch <td>plestura → plêschura → plêchur
<tr><td>s → sû /_C# <td>ereslos → erêsl → erêsûl
<tr><td>s → sh /C_# <td>dorsos → dôrs → dôrsh
<tr><td>k → 0 /_ch# <td>noctu → nôkch → nôch
<tr><td>s → h /_m <td>tekresmes → têrhêhmê
</table>
<h3><a name="Morphology"><font color="#000060">Morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<h3><a name="Nominal"><font color="#000060">Nominal declension</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Barakhinei has retained the three <b>genders</b> of Caďinor. It has retained four of the <b>cases</b> (nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive; only the ablative has been lost), but the accusative and dative merge in the plural.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><td colspan=6><b>Masculine</b>
<td><i>hints</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.nom </i>
<td>eli
<td>lônd
<td>âsht<b>a</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.acc </i>
<td>eli
<td>lônd
<td>âsht
<td> <td>
<td><i>always = root</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.dat </i>
<td>eli<b>a</b>
<td>lônd<b>a</b>
<td>âsht<b>a</b>
<td> <td>
<td><i>always -a</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.gen </i>
<td>eli<b>o</b>
<td>lônd<b>o</b>
<td>âsht<b>o</b>
<td> <td>
<td> <i>always -o</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.nom </i>
<td>eli<b>ri</b>
<td>lônd<b>i</b>
<td>âsht<b>â</b>
<td> <td>
<td><i>eli differs from lônd only in pl. root</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.acc/dat </i>
<td>eli<b>rî</b>
<td>lônd<b>î</b>
<td>âsht<b>î</b>
<td> <td>
<td><i>always -î</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.gen </i>
<td>eli<b>rich</b>
<td>lônd<b>ich</b>
<td>âsht<b>ach</b>
<td> <td>
<td><i>= pl.nom laxed + ch</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td colspan=6><b>Neuter </b><td>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.nom </i>
<td>kal
<td>shkor
<td>nôsht<b>i </b>
<td>man<b>u </b>
<td>shp<b>â</b>
<td> </b><i>in s., shkor follows kal </i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.acc </i>
<td>kal<b>u
<td>shkor<b>u
<td>nôsht<b>i
<td>man
<td>shp<b>â</b>
<td><i>acc = dat exc. for manu</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.dat </i>
<td>kal<b>u
<td>shkor<b>u </b>
<td>nôsht<b>i </b>
<td>man<b>u </b>
<td>shp<b>â</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.gen </i>
<td>kal<b>o </b>
<td>shkor<b>o </b>
<td>nôsht<b>io</b>
<td>man<b>o </b>
<td>shp<b>ach</b>
<td><i>all end in -o, like masc.</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.nom </i>
<td>kal<b>o </b>
<td>shkor<b>u </b>
<td>nôkch<b>u
<td>man<b>i </b>
<td>shp<b>ao</b>
<td><i>in pl., shkor follows nôshti</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.acc/dat </i>
<td>kal<b>oi </b>
<td>shkor<b>î </b>
<td>nôkch<b>î </b>
<td>man<b>î </b>
<td>shp<b>aoi</b>
<td><i>in oblique forms,</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.gen </i>
<td>kal<b>och </b>
<td>shkor<b>ich </b>
<td>nôkch<b>ich</b>
<td>man<b>ich </b>
<td>shp<b>aoch</b>
<td><i>kal is odd man out</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td colspan=6><b>Feminine </b><td>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.nom </i>
<td>chir
<td>nor
<td>medhi
<td>elorê
<td>kabr<b>â</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.acc </i>
<td></b>chir<b>a
<td>nor<b>e </b>
<td>medhi
<td>elor<b>e</b>
<td>kabr<b>a</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.dat </i>
<td>chir<b>ê </b>
<td>nor<b>ê </b>
<td>medhi<b>ê </b>
<td>elorê<b>
<td>kabr<b>ê</b>
<td><i>always -ê</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.gen </i>
<td>chir<b>ach </b>
<td>nor<b>ech </b>
<td>medhi<b>ch </b>
<td>elor<b>ech </b>
<td>kabr<b>ach</b>
<td><i>= acc. + ch</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.nom </i>
<td>chir<b>â </b>
<td>nor<b>ê </b>
<td>medhi<b>ê </b>
<td>elor<b>iê </b>
<td>kabr<b>achâ</b>
<td>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.acc/dat </i>
<td>chir<b>êi </b>
<td>nor<b>êi </b>
<td>medhi<b>a </b>
<td>elor<b>ia</b>
<td>kabr<b>acha</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.gen </i>
<td>chir<b>ech </b>
<td>nor<b>ech</b>
<td>medhi<b>ech </b>
<td>elor<b>iech </b>
<td>kabr<b>achech</b>
<td><i>always -ech</i>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The most important factor in the historical development of the declensions in Barakhinei was the loss of the final consonant or vowel in almost every case form. Subsequent analogical change has reversed some mergers and brought some of the declensions closer together.
<p>To decline a noun with confidence, you need to know its gender and its plural. The former is always indicated in the lexicon, and the latter when necessary.
<p>(Knowing the Caďinor etymon almost always does the trick as well. However, beware of a few words (e.g. <i>piabor</i> 'grandfather') which have shifted to a more 'logical' gender.
The Verdurian cognate will identify feminine nouns, but won't distinguish masculine and neuter.)
<ul>
<li> <i>Masculines</i> like <b>eli</b> have lost a final consonant, which is restored in the plural. The lexicon indicates this: e.g. <i>elorî (ni)</i> 'king' → s.nom. <i>elorî,</i> pl.nom. <i>elorini.</i>
<li> For <i>neuters</i> ending in a consonant it is necessary to know if the plural ends in -<b>o</b> or -<b>u</b>. Plurals in -<b>o</b> are more than twice as common as those in -<b>u</b>; only the latter are indicated. So the lexicon has entries <b>kal</b> and <b>shkor (u)</b>.
<li> Likewise, for feminines ending in a consonant, plurals in -<b>â</b>, which are very common, are not indicated in the lexicon; plurals in -<b>ê</b> are.</ul>
<h3><a name="Adjectives"><font color="#000060">Adjectives</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td rowspan=3> <td colspan=6><b>I Declension</b>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td colspan=3><i>'south'</i> <td colspan=3><i>'north'</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td><i>m. </i>
<td><i>n. </i>
<td><i>f. </i>
<td><i>m. </i>
<td><i>n. </i>
<td><i>f.</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.nom </i>
<td>âr
<td>âr
<td>âr
<td>na
<td>na
<td>na
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.acc </i>
<td>âr
<td>âru
<td>âra
<td>na
<td>nanu
<td>nana
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.dat </i>
<td>âra
<td>âru
<td>ârê
<td>nana
<td>nanu
<td>nanê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.gen </i>
<td>âro
<td>âro
<td>ârach
<td>nano
<td>nano
<td>nanach
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.nom </i>
<td>âri
<td>âro
<td>ârâ
<td>nani
<td>nano
<td>nanâ
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.acc/dat </i>
<td>ârî
<td>ârî
<td>ârêi
<td>nanî
<td>nanî
<td>nanêi
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.gen </i>
<td>ârich
<td>ârich
<td>ârech
<td>nanich
<td>nanich
<td>nanech
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td rowspan=3> <td colspan=3><b>II Declension</b> <td colspan=3><b>III Declension</b>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td colspan=3><i>'calm'</i> <td colspan=3><i>'round'</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td><i>m. </i>
<td><i>n. </i>
<td><i>f. </i>
<td><i>m. </i>
<td><i>n. </i>
<td><i>f.</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.nom </i>
<td>gelê
<td>gele
<td>gelê
<td>ori
<td>ori
<td>ori
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.acc </i>
<td>gelê
<td>gelê
<td>gele
<td>or
<td>ori
<td>ori
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.dat </i>
<td>gela
<td>gelê
<td>gelê
<td>ori
<td>ori
<td>oriê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>s.gen </i>
<td>gelo
<td>gelo
<td>gelech
<td>orio
<td>orio
<td>orich
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.nom </i>
<td>gelê
<td>gele
<td>gelê
<td>ori
<td>oru
<td>oriê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.acc/dat </i>
<td>gelî
<td>gelê
<td>gelêi
<td>orî
<td>orî
<td>oria
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>pl.gen </i>
<td>gelêch
<td>gelech
<td>gelech
<td>orich
<td>orich
<td>oriech
</table>
</blockquote>
The citation form for adjectives is the masculine s.nom.
<ul>
<li> Adjectives of the <b>I</b> declension, whose citation form normally ends in a consonant, decline exactly like <i>eli, shkor, chir. </i>
<p><i> </i>For some I adjectives, such as <i>na</i>, the final consonant is lost in the s. nom. and the m. s. acc. In the lexicon this root is cited as <b>na (n)</b>, indicating the consonant to be restored.<p>
<li> In the <b>III</b> declension, whose citation form ends in -<b>i</b>, the neuters and feminines match the corresponding nominal declensions (<i>nôshti, medhi</i>). The masculine departs from the neuter only to follow the most common m. patterns (minimal form in s.acc; plural in -<b>i</b>).<p>
<li> Those of the <b>II</b> declension, whose citation form ends in -<b>ê</b>, don't strictly follow any nominal class, though they follow the usual patterns (see 'hints' under <i>Nominal declension</i>). Note that 9 of 21 endings are -<i>ê</i>, and -<i>e</i> and -<i>ech</i> repeat three times each!</ul>
<p>There are two adjectives in -<b>â</b> (<i>mudrâ, shkrâ</i>). These follow the patterns for nouns in -<b>â</b>; the masculine forms are identical to the neuters.
<p><b>Adverbs</b> are expressed by conjoining the feminine s. nom. form of the adjective to <i>meli</i> 'way': <i>iziêth meli</i> 'importantly'; <i>lebê</i> → <i>lebe meli</i> 'newly'; <i>rochi meli</i> 'crazily'.
<h3><a name="Pronouns"><font color="#000060">Pronouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<h4><a name="Personal"><font color="#000060">Personal pronouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><i>nom. </i>
<td><i>gen. </i>
<td><i>acc. </i>
<td><i>dat. </i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I </i>
<td><b>sû </b>
<td>(eri)
<td>sêth
<td>sû
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>thou </i>
<td><b>lê </b>
<td>(leri)
<td>êk
<td>lê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>this one </i>
<td><b>ât </b>
<td>âti
<td>âtô
<td>âta
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>that one </i>
<td><b>tot</b>
<td>toti
<td>tô
<td>tota
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>we </i>
<td><b>ta </b>
<td>(tandê)
<td>tâ
<td>tao
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>you </i>
<td><b>mukh </b>
<td>(mundê)
<td>mî
<td>mî
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>they </i>
<td><b>kâ </b>
<td>(kandê)
<td>kâ
<td>kâ
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>refl. </i>
<td>
<td>zei
<td>zêth
<td>zeu
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>refl. pl. </i>
<td><b> </b>
<td>zai
<td>zaa
<td>zau
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>who/what </i>
<td><b>kêt </b>
<td>kêti
<td>kêtô
<td>kêta
</table>
</blockquote>
The third person singular pronouns are the same as the demonstrative pronouns, and do not vary by sex: <b>ât</b> can be 'this one, he, she, it (over here)'; <b>tot</b> can be 'that one, he, she, it (over there)'. The two pronouns can be used as proximative and obviative pronouns, referring unambiguously to two separate referents:
<blockquote>
<b><u>Ât</u> <u>tota</u> fetâ chî <u>tot</u> shkrif chî <u>ât</u> laodâ oloka mônê.</b>
<br><i>He<font size=2>1</font> said to him<font size=2>2</font> that he<font size=2>2</font> knew he<font size=2>1</font> would get sick </i>
</blockquote>
In isolated regions in Barakhún and Mútkün, the third person singular pronoun, <i>chu</i>, derives from Caďinor <i>tu</i> 'he/she' rather than <i>aettos/totos</i> 'this/that one'.
<p><i>Eri, leri, tandê, mundê, </i>and<i> kandê</i> are regular adjectives, and must be declined as such: <i>eriê nagâ</i> 'my feet', <i>tando firakho '</i>of our enemy'.
<p>Reflexive pronouns are used (much as in Verdurian) both for true reflexive uses (<i>zêth shkrivê</i> 'to know oneself') and to make transitive verbs intransitive (<i>zêth eterê</i> 'to run by itself').
<h4><a name="Other"><font color="#000060">Other pronouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>which </i>
<td><b>kê </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>this </i>
<td><b>âl </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>that </i>
<td><b>il</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>who, what </i>
<td><b>kêt</b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>this one </i>
<td><b>ât </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>that one </i>
<td><b>tot</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>where </i>
<td><b>kedi </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>here </i>
<td><b>âsht </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>there </i>
<td><b>kêsht</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>when </i>
<td><b>ked </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>now </i>
<td><b>âl khor </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>then </i>
<td><b>il dêna</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>every, all </i>
<td><b>shkei </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>some </i>
<td><b>nhê </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>none </i>
<td><b>sî</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>everyone </i>
<td><b>shpiê </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>someone </i>
<td><b>thizi </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>no one </i>
<td><b>nikt</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>everywhere </i>
<td><b>shkei nor </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>somewhere </i>
<td><b>nhê nor </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>nowhere </i>
<td><b>sî nor</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>always </i>
<td><b>shkei dêna </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>sometimes </i>
<td><b>nhê dêna </b>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>never </i>
<td><b>sî dêna</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>how </i>
<td><b>kênz </b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>how much </i>
<td><b>shkol</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>why </i>
<td><b>poche</b>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p><i>âl, il, shkei, thizi</i> are declined as regular adjectives; <i>nhê,</i> <i>kê</i> and <i>sî</i> are invariable.
<p>No animate/inanimate distinction is made with these pronouns: <i>kêt</i> means both 'who' and 'what'; <i>thizi</i> means both 'someone' and 'something'.
<p>The locative pronouns have dative forms <i>kediê, âshta, kêshta, </i>used only by men.
<h3><a name="Numbers"><font color="#000060">Numbers</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td>digit
<td>x10
<td>ordinal
<td>fraction
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">1
<td><b>a
<td>dêsht
<td>perê
<td>perê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">2
<td><b>dhu
<td>tedêsht
<td>torê
<td>mechî
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">3
<td><b>di
<td>medêsht
<td>merê
<td>dinga
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">4
<td><b>pao
<td>chedêsht
<td>chêtnê
<td>barga
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">5
<td><b>panth
<td>pandêsht
<td>pantê
<td>pantê thur
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">6
<td><b>sêsht
<td>sêdêsht
<td>sêshtê
<td>...
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">7
<td><b>khâp
<td>hedêsht
<td>khâpê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">8
<td><b>hoch
<td>hodêsht
<td>hôkri
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">9
<td><b>nhêbor
<td>nhêdêsht
<td>nhêbri
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0">10
<td><b>dêsht
<td>sekath
<td>dêshti
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>Numbers up to four are declined as regular adjectives (<i>dhunâ nagâ</i> 'two feet', <i>paorich boboch</i> 'of four fools'); higher numbers, including combinations, are invariable (<i>sêsht genî</i> 'to six clans'). The ordinal numbers are also regular adjectives.
<p>Numbers from 11 to 19 are formed by conjoining <i>dêsht</i> plus the digit name, which receives the accent: <i>dêsht<u>a</i></u>, <i>dêshtdh<u>u</u></i>, etc. The only spelling changes are 16 <i>dêsêsht</i> and 18 <i>dêshtoch</i>. Other two-digit combinations, however, are formed as conjoined phrases: 21 <i>tedêsht êr a</i>; 54 <i>pandêsht e pao</i>; 78 <i>hedêsht e hoch</i>.
<p>Higher numbers are fairly straightforward: 3487 = <i>di mel pao sekath hodêsht e khâp</i>.
<h3><a name="Conjugation"><font color="#000060">Conjugation </a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Barakhinei has retained the past, present, and past anterior tenses, the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative moods, and conjugates by person and number. However, it has lost the dynamic aspect.
<p>(There are enough mergers that the verb form alone does not determine person/number. In Rhânor and in southern Hroth, pronouns are generally included for all persons; elsewhere, only for second person.)
<h4>PRESENT </h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>elirê </b><br><i>live</i>
<td><b>rikha </b><br><i>look at</i>
<td><b>lelê </b><br><i>see</i>
<td><b>bêshti </b><br><i>move</i>
<td><b>habê </b><br><i>wear</i>
<td><i>Hints</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b><u>a</b></u><b>
<td>rikh<b><u>â</b></u>
<td>lel<b><u>â</b></u><b>
<td>bêch<b>
<td>ha<b>p</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b><u>û</b></u><b>
<td>rikh<b><u>ê</b></u>
<td>lel<b><u>ê</b></u><b>
<td>bêsht<b>û
<td>hab<b>û
<td><i>either -û or -ê</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b>ê
<td>rikh<b>ê
<td>lel<b>ê
<td>bêsht<b>i
<td>hab<b>ê
<td><i>almost always -ê</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>elir<b>u
<td>rikh<b>a
<td>lel<b>a
<td>bêkch<b>u
<td>hab<b>u
<td><i>either -u or -a</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>elir<b>u
<td>rikh<b>u
<td>lel<b>u
<td>bêkch<b>u
<td>hab<b>u
<td><i>always -u</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td>elir<b>ôn
<td>rikh<b>ôn
<td>lel<b>ên
<td>bêsht<b>în
<td>hab<b>un
<td><i>always -Vn</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>grochê </b><br><i>mill</i>
<td><b>foka </b><br><i>invoke</i>
<td><b>nochê </b><br><i>squeeze</i>
<td><b>faichi </b><br><i>leave</i>
<td><b>klachê </b><br><i>beat</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td>gro<b>g</b><u>a</u>
<td>fok<u>â</u>
<td>no<b>g</b><u>â</u>
<td>fa<b>ok</b>
<td>kla<b>k</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td>groch<u>û</u>
<td>fo<b>ch</b><u>ê</u>
<td>noch<u>ê</u>
<td>fa<b>o</b>chû
<td>klachû
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td>grochê
<td>fo<b>ch</b>ê
<td>nochê
<td>faichi
<td>klachê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>gro<b>g</b>u
<td>foka
<td>nocha
<td>fa<b>ok</b>u
<td>kla<b>g</b>u
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>gro<b>g</b>u
<td>foku
<td>nochu
<td>fa<b>ok</b>u
<td>kla<b>g</b>u
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td>gro<b>g</b>ôn
<td>fokôn
<td>nochên
<td>faichîn
<td>kla<b>g</b>un
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>Sound change has affected Caďinor verbal roots ending in <i>c</i> or <i>g</i> quirkily enough that it's worth giving a full set of examples, with phonetic changes highlighted.
<p><i>Bêshti</i> shows a more restricted sound change: -<i>sht-</i> changes to <i>-kch-</i> before -<i>u</i> (not -<i>û</i>).
<p>A Caďinor <i>-u-</i> is fronted before a front vowel; this accounts for the alternation <i>faich/faok</i>. This always affects the III.sg; in the <i>rikha</i> conjugation it affects the IIsg as well (<i>chura → chirê</i>); in <i>lelê</i> conjugation, it affects all but the I.sg. (In Central dialect it remains rounded: 'leave' is <i>faüchi</i>.)
<p>In the <i>bêshti</i> and <i>habê</i> conjugations only, a final -<b>d</b>, -<b>t</b>, or -<b>p</b> in the verbal root generally changes to -<b>dh</b>, -<b>th</b>, or -<b>v</b>/<b>f</b> in the I.sg. and plural forms: <i>sidê </i>'offer' → <i>sidh, sidû, sidê, sidhu, sidhu, sidhun.</i>
<p>Finally, note the devoicing in <i>hap, klak</i>.
<h4>PAST </h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>elirê </b>
<td><b>rikha </b>
<td><b>lelê </b>
<td><b>bêshti </b>
<td><b>habê </b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b>i
<td>rikh<b>i
<td>lel<b>i
<td>bêsht<b>i
<td>hab<b>i</b>
<td><i>always -i</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b>î
<td>rikh<b>i
<td>lel<b>i
<td>bêsht<b>ê
<td>hab<b>ê</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b>
<td>rikh<b>â
<td>lel<b>â
<td>bêsht<b>â
<td>ha<b>p</b>
<td><i>-â or nothing</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>elir<b>ê
<td>rikh<b>u
<td>lel<b>u
<td>bêsht<b>ê
<td>hab<b>ê</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>elir<b>ê
<td>rikh<b>ê
<td>lel<b>ê
<td>bêsht<b>ê
<td>hab<b>ê</b>
<td><i>always -ê</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td>elir<b>în
<td>rikh<b>în
<td>lel<b>în
<td>bêsht<b>ên
<td>hab<b>ên</b>
<td><i>always -(ê,î)n</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>grochê </b>
<td><b>foka </b>
<td><b>nochê </b>
<td><b>faichi </b>
<td><b>klachê </b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td>grochi
<td>fo<b>ch</b>i
<td>nochi
<td>faichi
<td>klachi
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td>grochî
<td>fo<b>ch</b>i
<td>nochi
<td>faichê
<td>klachê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td>gro<b>k</b>
<td>fokâ
<td>no<b>g</b>â
<td>fa<b>ok</b>â
<td>klach
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>gro<b>g</b>ê
<td>foku
<td>no<b>g</b>u
<td>faichê
<td>klachê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>gro<b>g</b>ê
<td>fokê
<td>no<b>g</b>ê
<td>faichê
<td>klachê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td>grochîn
<td>fo<b>ch</b>în
<td>nochîn
<td>faichên
<td>klachên
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>In Proto-Eastern the past tense was formed by a change in stem vowel; this can still be seen in Barakhinei, in the substitution of front vowels for the back vowels in the present tense.
<p>Again, alternations of Caďinor roots in <i>-c, -g</i> are given; and note the devoicing in <i>hap </i>and<i> grok</i>.
<p>The <i>-u-</i> fronting (<i>faich/faok</i>) affects almost all forms in the past tense, sparing only the endings <i>-â, -u</i> and the III.sg for <i>elirê</i> verbs.
<p>The -<i>sht-</i> → <i>-kch</i> change we met with <i>bêshti</i> in the present tense here affects only forms ending in -<i>u</i>, while <i>-sht → -ch</i> in the III.sg for the first -<i>ê</i> verbs: <i>têshtê</i> → IIIsg <i>têch</i>.
<p>In the <i>elirê</i> conjugation only, a root ending in -<b>d</b>, -<b>t</b>, -<b>p</b> has a III.sg. ending in -<b>dh</b>, -<b>th</b>, or -<b>f</b>: <i>rhedê</i> 'believe' → <i>rhedh</i> 'he believed'. Note that this affects a different conjugation than the corresponding change in the present.
<h4>PAST ANTERIOR</h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>elirê </b>
<td><b>rikha </b>
<td><b>lelê </b>
<td><b>bêshti </b>
<td><b>habê </b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td>elirri
<td>rikhri
<td>lelri
<td>bêshtri
<td>habri
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td>elirrî
<td>rikhri
<td>lelri
<td>bêshtrê
<td>habrê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b>êr</b>
<td>rikhrâ
<td>lelrâ
<td>bêshtrâ
<td>hab<b>êr</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>elirrê
<td>rikhru
<td>lelru
<td>bêshtrê
<td>habrê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>elirrê
<td>rikhrê
<td>lelrê
<td>bêshtrê
<td>habrê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td>elirrîn
<td>rikhrîn
<td>lelrîn
<td>bêshtrên
<td>habrên
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The past anterior tense (used for actions taking place before the time referred to by the past tense) is formed by adding -<b>r</b>- to the verb root, followed by the past tense endings. The exception is the III.sg. endings for <i>elirê</i> and <i>klachê</i> verbs: null in the past tense, -<b>êr</b> in the past anterior.
<p>The past anterior endings are always <i>stressed</i>.
<p>No root alternations are found in this tense.
<h4>PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE</h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>elirê </b>
<td><b>rikha </b>
<td><b>lelê </b>
<td><b>bêshti </b>
<td><b>habê </b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td>elirt<u>a</u>
<td>rikhm<u>â</u>
<td>lelm<u>â</u>
<td>bêsht<b>ech</b>
<td>hab<b>ech</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td>elirt<b><u>ê</b></u>
<td>rikhm<u>ê</u>
<td>lelm<u>ê</u>
<td>bêsht<b>ech</b>
<td>hab<b>ech</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td>elirtê
<td>rikhmê
<td>lelmê
<td>bêshti
<td>habt<b>i</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>elirtu
<td>rikhma
<td>lelma
<td>bêshchu
<td>habchu
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>elirtu
<td>rikhmu
<td>lelmu
<td>bêshchu
<td>habchu
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td>elirtôn
<td>rikhmôn
<td>lelmên
<td>bêshtîn
<td>habt<b>î</b>n
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The subjunctive, derived from the Caďinor remote static present, is formed by adding -<b>t</b>- or -<b>m</b>- to the verb root, then the subjunctive tense endings. For all but the highlighted forms, these are the same as the present tense endings. Also note that -<b>tu</b> changes to -<b>chu</b> in the I.pl and II.pl for the <i>bêshti</i> and <i>habê</i> conjugations only.
<p>In speech, the endings devoice the ending of the verbal root (<i>habchu → hapchu</i>), but this is not reflected in writing.
<p>Some verbs have a distinct subjunctive root, noted in the lexicon<i>.</i> E.g. <i>laoda</i> 'go' → subj. I.sg. <i>lodâ</i>, not <i>*laodmâ</i>.
<h4>PAST SUBJUNCTIVE </h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>elirê </b>
<td><b>rikha </b>
<td><b>lelê </b>
<td><b>bêshti </b>
<td><b>habê </b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td>elirk<u>a</u>
<td>rikhn<u>â</u>
<td>leln<u>â</u>
<td>bêsht<b>ir</b>
<td>hab<b>ir</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td>elirch<u>ê</u>
<td>rikhn<u>ê</u>
<td>leln<u>ê</u>
<td>bêsht<b>ir</b>
<td>hab<b>ir</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td>elirchê
<td>rikhnê
<td>lelnê
<td>bêshtri
<td>habri
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>elirku
<td>rikhna
<td>lelna
<td>bêshtru
<td>habru
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>elirku
<td>rikhnu
<td>lelnu
<td>bêshtru
<td>habru
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td>elirkôn
<td>rikhnôn
<td>lelnên
<td>bêshtrîn
<td>habrîn
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The past subjunctive is formed like the present subjunctive, but using a different infix: -<b>k</b>/<b>ch</b>- for the <i>elirê</i> conjugation, -<b>n</b>- for the <i>rikha</i> and <i>lelê</i> conjugations, -<b>r</b>- for the others. In the latter, note the special ending in the I.sg and II.sg.
<h4>IMPERATIVE </h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>elirê </b>
<td><b>rikha </b>
<td><b>lelê </b>
<td><b>bêshti </b>
<td><b>habê </b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b>
<td>rikh<b>
<td>lel<b>
<td>bêch
<td>hap
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>elir<b>êl
<td>rikh<b>el
<td>lel<b>el
<td>bêkch<b>u</b>
<td>hab<b>u</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td>elir<b>a
<td>rikh<b>a
<td>lel<b>a
<td>bêkch<b>a</b>
<td>hab<b>a</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td>elir<b>an
<td>rikh<b>an
<td>lel<b>an
<td>bêkch<b>an</b>
<td>hab<b>an</b>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>The II.sg. imperative is usually just the verb root, with some irregularities. The <i>bêshti</i> and <i>habê</i> forms are the same as the present tense I.sg. The <i>rikha</i> forms show the <i>c,g → ch </i>softening: <i>foka → foch</i>; they and the <i>lelê</i> forms also turn a -<b>u</b>- into an -<b>i-</b>: <i>chura → chir</i>. Final -<b>b</b>, -<b>g</b> are devoiced in all conjugations.
<p>The II.pl. imperative in the <i>bêshti</i> and <i>habê</i> forms are the same as the present tense forms. For <i>elirê</i> verbs, it's the same as the present III.sg. plus -<b>l</b>; for <i>rikha</i> and <i>lelê</i> verbs it's the same as the past I.sg. plus -<b>l</b>.
<p>The III.sg. forms all show the root alteration <i>u →i</i> (<i>chura → chira</i>). Final -<i>d, -t, -p</i> in the root become <i>-dh, -th, -v. </i>The III.pl. forms simply add an -<b>n</b> onto this.
<p>Pronouns are never used with the imperative.
<h4>PARTICIPLES </h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td>
<td><b>elirê </b>
<td><b>rikha </b>
<td><b>lelê </b>
<td><b>bêshti </b>
<td><b>habê </b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>past </i>
<td>elir<b>êl </b>
<td>rikh<b>u </b>
<td>lel<b>u </b>
<td>bêkch<b>u</b>
<td>klach<b>êl</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>present </i>
<td>elir<b>il </b>
<td>rikh<b>ê </b>
<td>lel<b>ê </b>
<td>bêsht<b>i</b>
<td>klach<b>ê</b>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>Participles are regular adjectives; those ending in -<i>u</i> have an oblique root -<i>ul-</i>.
<p>Root alternations can be deduced from the first vowel of the ending: e.g. <i>foka</i> → past <i>foku</i>, present <i>fochê</i>.
<p>Participles can be used (appropriately declined) wherever an adjective can be used: <i>dôriê honiê</i> 'sleeping women'; <i>kekulo pono</i> 'of the killed warrior'; <i>raolu kâbol</i> 'cooked onion'.
<h4><a name="Analytic"><font color="#000060">Analytic tenses</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The participles are used to form analytic tenses, in conjunction with <b>eza</b> 'to be'.
<p>The present participle gives a <b>progressive</b> or continual meaning; the past participle gives a <b>perfective</b> (but not a passive) meaning (equivalent to the Verdurian <i>ya</i>).
<blockquote>
<b>Rikhâ ila dezi. </b><i>I see the bridge.</i>
<p><b>Sâ rikhê ila dezi. </b>
<br><i>I am looking at the bridge; I often look at the bridge.</i>
<p><b>Sâ rikhu ila dezi. </b>
<br><i>I have looked at the bridge; I just looked at the bridge.</i>
<p><b>Lê klachê il rhez.</b><i> You beat the dog.</i>
<p><b>Lê sê klachêl il rhez.</b>
<br><i> You were beating the dog; you always beat your dog.</i>
<p><b>Lê sê klachê il rhez.</b>
<br><i>You have beaten your dog; you've finished beating your dog.</i>
</blockquote>
The <b>future tense</b> is formed with <i>laoda</i> 'go' + the infinitive: <i>laodâ proza</i> 'I am going to walk, I will walk'.
<h4><a name="Irregular"><font color="#000060">Irregular verbs </a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Irregular forms are in <b>bold</b>.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td rowspan=2><td colspan=5><b>eza</b> <i>'to be' </i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td><i>pres. </i>
<td><i>past. </i>
<td><i>past ant. </i>
<td><i>subj pres </i>
<td><i>subj past</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td><b>sâ </b>
<td>fuch
<td>firi
<td>êsht<u>a</b></u><b>
<td>êshk<u>a</b></u>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td><b>sê </b>
<td>fuch
<td>firi
<td>êsht<u>ê</b></u><b>
<td>êshk<u>ê</b></u>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td><b>ê </b>
<td>fâ
<td>furâ
<td>êshtê
<td>êshkê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>eza
<td><b>fu
<td>furu
<td>êshta
<td>êshka</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>ezu
<td><b>fuê </b>
<td>furê
<td>êshtu
<td>êshku</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td><b>sôn</b>
<td><b>fûn </b>
<td>firiôn
<td>êshtôn
<td>êshkôn</b>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td rowspan=2><td colspan=2><b>epeza </b> <br><i>'can'</i>
<td><b>foli </b> <br><i>'want'</i>
<td><b>lhibê </b> <br><i>'love'</i>
<td colspan=2><b>kedhê </b> <br><i>'bear'</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>past </i>
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>past</i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td><b>ûz<u>â</b></u>
<td><b>ûzi </b>
<td><b>ful </b>
<td><b>lhua </b>
<td>kedhâ
<td>kedhi
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td><b>ûz<u>ê</u></b>
<td><b>ûzi </b>
<td><b>ful</b>
<td><b>lhû </b>
<td>kedhê
<td>kedhi
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td><b>epê </b>
<td><b>epâ</b>
<td><b>fut</b>
<td><b>lhu </b>
<td><b>kedhu</b>
<td><b>kiâ</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td>epeza
<td><b>ûzu </b>
<td>folu
<td><b>lhubu </b>
<td>kedha
<td>kedhu
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td>epezu
<td><b>ûzê </b>
<td>folu
<td><b>lhubu </b>
<td>kedhu
<td>kedhê
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td><b>ûzôn</b>
<td><b>ûzîn </b>
<td>folîn
<td><b>lôn </b>
<td><b>kên</b>
<td><b>kedhîn</b>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td rowspan=2>
<td><b>nhê </b><br><i>'be born'</i>
<td><b>shkrivê </b><br><i>'know'</i>
<td><b>shtanê </b><br><i>'come'</i>
<td><b>fâli </b><br><i>'need'</i>
<td><b>hizi </b><br><i>'provide'</i>
<td><b>oi </b><br><i>'hear'</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>present </i>
<td><i>present </i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.sg.</i>
<td><b>nhe</b>
<td>shkriv<u>a</u>
<td><b>shtâ </b>
<td>fâl
<td><b>huz</b>
<td><b>oh</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.sg.</i>
<td><b>ni</b>
<td><b>shkri </b>
<td><b>shtê </b>
<td><b>fêl</b>
<td><b>hu</b>
<td><b>fi</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.sg.</i>
<td><b>ni</b>
<td><b>shkri </b>
<td><b>shtê </b>
<td><b>fêl</b>
<td><b>hut</b>
<td><b>fit</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>I.pl.</i>
<td><b>nheza </b>
<td>shkrivu
<td>shtana
<td>fâlu
<td>hizu
<td>ou
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>II.pl.</i>
<td><b>nhezu</b>
<td>shkrivu
<td>shtanu
<td>fâlu
<td>hizu
<td>ou
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><i>III.pl.</i>
<td><b>nhên </b>
<td>shkrivôn
<td><b>shtôn </b>
<td>fâlîn
<td>hizîn
<td>oîn
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>In addition, twenty or so verbs (and their derivatives) have an <b>irregular subjunctive</b> stem, indicated in the dictionary. For instance, <i>laoda</i> 'go' has the subjunctive stem <i>lod</i>-. So instead of forming the present subjunctive <i>*laodmâ, *laodmê...</i> it's <i>lodâ, lodê, lodê, loda, lodu, lodôn; </i>and the past subjunctive is not <i>*laodnâ...</i> but <i>lodi, lodi, lodâ, lodu, lodê, lodîn. </i>
<h3><a name="Derivational"><font color="#000060">Derivational morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Some of the more common affixes:
<h4><a name="Nominalizers">Nominalizers</a></h4>
<dl>
<dt>-<b>ech</b> Nominalization of action verbs and some adjectives (Caď. <i>-eio, -eia</i>):
<dd><i>krechê</i> 'eat' → <i>krechech</i> 'eating'
<br><i>gelê</i> 'calm' → <i>gelech</i> 'calm'<p>
<dt>-<b>ek</b> Another nominalizer (Caď. -<i>eca</i>):
<dd><i>froê</i> 'cold' → <i>froek</i> 'coldness'
<br><i>klachê</i> 'bright' → <i>klachek</i> 'brightness'
<br> <i>laoda</i> 'go' → <i>laodek</i> 'departure'<p>
<dt>-<b>ant</b> Quality, state, operation, or art (Caď. -<i>antos</i>):
<dd> <i>zobant</i> 'sorcery'
<br><i>pidant</i> 'fatherhood'
<br><i>chirolant</i> 'complexity'<p>
<dt>-<b>orî</b> Person in charge (Caď. <i>-orion</i>):
<dd><i>klâtand</i> 'seminary' → <i>klâtandorî</i> 'dean'<p>
<dt>-<b>u</b> Associated person (Caď. past participle -<i>ul</i>):
<dd><i>klâtandu</i> 'seminarian'
<br><i>kôn</i> 'money' → <i>kônu</i> 'rich man'
<br> <i>redêl</i> 'womanhood ceremony' → <i>redêlu </i>'maiden'. <br>These decline like the 1st declension adjective <i>na</i>, adding <i>-l-</i> where it adds <i>-n-.</i><p>
<dt>-<b>êl</b> Materials, result (Caď. -<i>el</i>):
<dd><i>habê</i> 'wear' → <i>habêl</i> 'clothes'
<br><i>redi → redêl</i> 'womanhood ceremony'
<br><i>kireza</i> 'question' → <i>kirezêl</i> 'question'<p>
<dt>-<b>el</b> Associated object or action (Caď. -<i>ile</i>):
<dd><i>roi</i> 'cheat' → <i>rolel</i> 'trick'
<br>associated noun:
<br><i>lan</i> 'flax' → <i>lanel</i> 'linen' <p>
<dt>-<b>ek</b> Diminutive:
<dd><i>rhezek</i> 'little dog'
<br><i>honek</i> 'little woman'
<br>In Hroth and southern Mútkün, -<b>ilh</b>-, from Cuêzi, is seen: <i>rhezilh, honilhê</i><p>
<dt>-<b>nor</b> Place (Caď. -<i>naure</i>):
<dd><i>Rafnor</i> 'Rau jungle'
<br><i>ekunor</i> 'princedom'
<br><i>Rhânor</i> 'borderland'<p>
<dt><b>hon</b>- female:
<dd><i>honkônz</i> 'female cousin'
<br><i>honhêru</i> 'nun'
<br><i>honursh</i> 'female bear'<p>
<dt>-<b>ê</b> wife of an official or noble:
<dd><i>shkokh</i> 'duke' → <i>shkokhê</i> 'duchess'
</dl>
<h4><a name="Adjectivizers">Adjectivizers</a></h4>
<dl>
<dt>-<b>hmê</b> (Caď. -<i>smes</i>):
<dd><i>gor </i>'sense' → <i>gorêhmê</i> 'sensible'
<br> <i>firakh</i> 'enemy' → <i>firakhmê</i> 'opposed'
<br> <i>honê</i> 'woman' → <i>hommê</i> 'womanly'<p>
<dt>-<b>izê</b> (Caď. -<i>ises</i>):
<dd><i>Eledha → Eledhizê</i> 'Eledhe'
<br><i>chir</i> 'body' → <i>chirizê</i> 'physical'<p>
<dt>-<b>il</b> A more formal adjectivization (borrowed from Caďinor):
<dd><i>elorî </i>→ <i>eloril</i> 'royal'
<br><i>ilôd</i> 'silver' → <i>ilôdil</i> 'silvery' <p>
<dt>-<b>ei</b> Geographic adjectives:
<dd><i>Barakhinei</i>; <i>Rhânorei</i> <p>
<dt><b>bu</b>- Not (Caď. <i>bu</i>-):
<dd><i>buhommê</i> 'unwomanly'; <i>bufolu</i> 'unwanted'
<br>Becomes <b>bi</b>- before a front vowel:
<br><i>bichiroli</i> 'uncomplicated', <i>bilerchê</i> 'unhappy'<p>
<dt><b>sî</b>- Without:
<dd><i>sîkeram</i> 'shameless'; <i>lelê
<br></i>'seeing'<i> → sîlelê</i> 'blind'
</dl>
<h4><a name="Verbalizers">Verbalizers</a></h4>
<dl>
<dt>-<b>ati</b> Use (a part of the body); also general depreciative (Caď. -<i>atir</i>):
<dd><i>doti</i> 'finger' → <i>dotati</i> 'point'
<br><i>pili </i>'eyelash' →<i> pilati </i>'blink'
<br><i>piru</i> 'alcoholic drink' → <i>pirati</i> 'get wasted'<p>
<dt>-<b>inzê</b> Prolongative/Intensive (Caď. -<i>inser</i>):
<dd><i>nenê</i> 'talk' → <i>neninzê</i> 'talk your leg off'
<br> <i>chora </i>'flow, cry'<i> → chorinzê</i> 'bawl, gush'<p>
<dt><b>rên</b>- Again (Caď. <i>ren-</i>):
<dd><i>laoda</i> 'go' → <i>renlaoda</i> 'return'
<br><i>lelê</i> 'see' → <i>renlelê</i> 'see again'<p>
<dt>-<b>vashê</b> Causative (Caď. <i>fasc</i>- 'do'):
<dd><i>kêshkê</i> 'big' → <i>kêshkêvashê </i>'enlarge, grow'
<br><i>shkôrê</i> 'dark' → <i>shkôrêvashê</i> 'darken'
</dl>
<h3><a name="Syntax"><font color="#000060">Syntax</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<h4><a name="Constituent"><font color="#000060">Constituent order</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The unmarked word order is S<font color="#4040FF">V</font><font color="#E00000">O</font>:
<blockquote>
<b>Ili ekuni <font color="#4040FF">dezdîn</font> <font color="#E00000">lebê elorî</font>. </b>
<br><i>The princes selected a new king.</i>
<br><b>Honê sîkeram <font color="#4040FF">rizundâ</font> <font color="#E00000">âla foela</font>. </b>
<br><i>A shameless woman wrote this letter.</i>
</blockquote>
With case marked for most words and subject agreement on the verb, word order is fairly free. There is a tendency to move the <b><i>topic</b></i> to the beginning of the sentence; this is done where English would passivize:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#E00000">Il lebê elorî</font> <font color="#4040FF">dezdîn</font> ili ekuni. </b>
<br><i>The new king was selected by the princes.</i>
<br><b><font color="#E00000">Âla foela</font> <font color="#4040FF">rizundâ</font> honê sîkeram. </b>
<br><i>This letter was written by a shameless woman.</i>
</blockquote>
<p><i><b>Pronominal objects</b></i> are normally placed before a conjugated verb, but cliticized after an infinitive.
<blockquote>
<b>Il shkokh <font color="#4040FF">shkri</font> purho <font color="#E00000">zei shkenhêi</font>. </b>
<br><i>The governor truly knows his chickens.</i>
<p><b>Il shkokh <font color="#E00000">kâ</font> <font color="#4040FF">shkri</font> purho. </b>
<br><i>The governer truly knows them.</i>
<p><b>Ât fut <font color="#4040FF">shkrivê</font><font color="#E00000">kâ</font>. </b>
<br><i>He wants to know them.</i>
<p><b><font color="#E00000">Lê</font> <font color="#4040FF">laodâ fetê</font> pomaire. </b>
<br><i> I'll tell you a story.</i>
</blockquote>
A direct object pronoun precedes an <font color="#FF8080">indirect</font> one:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#E00000">Âto</font> <font color="#FF8080">tota</font> <font color="#4040FF">di</font>. </b><i>I gave it to him/her.</i>
<br><b><font color="#E00000">Tot</font> <font color="#FF8080">sû</font> <font color="#4040FF">di</font>!</b> <i>Give me that!</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Noun"><font color="#000060">Noun phrases</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Determiners and numbers precede the <u>noun</u>; most adjectives, genitives, and other modifiers follow it:
<blockquote>
<b>âl <u>bop</u> </b><i>that fool</i>
<br><b><u>kaokh</u> feredê </b><i>a green lizard</i>
<br><b><u>kôn</u> eri </b><i>my money</i>
<br><b>têrsê il <u>chuz</u> </b><i>all that shit</i>
<br><b>il <u>kân</u> glini felachach eri</b><i> the long pen of my aunt</i>
<br><b>dhuni <u>poni</u> thainê </b><i>two left-handed warriors</i>
<br><b>il <u>ebdûn</u> khip dezi</b><i> the troll under the bridge</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Articles"><font color="#000060">Articles</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
There are no articles per se; but <b>il</b> 'that' is regularly used as a definite article (<i>Leli mashtana</i> 'I have seen a city'; <i>Leli <u>ila</i></u><i> mashtana</i> 'I have seen the city'), to the point that the demonstrative meaning of <b>il</b> is commonly reinforced by <b>kêsht</b> 'there' (and <b>âl</b> 'this' by <b>âsht</b><i> </i>'here'): <i>Sîk feriâ il mêdh kesht</i> 'I can't stand that boy'. Such reinforcement is not needed when a contrast with <b>âl</b> makes the demonstrative meaning clear: <i>âl shkenh êr il shkenh </i>'this chicken and that chicken'.
<p>As the demonstratives have not completed their transition to articles, it is not surprising that certain English article usages do not occur in Barakhinei. In general <b>il</b> can be used as an article only when the referent has been explicitly mentioned ('The king is here. I hate the [<b>il</b>] king.') or, in speech, when it is present. A reference by implication won't do. Thus we can say 'I visited the palace. The king was there.' In Barakhinei one must say <b>Elorî fâ kêsht</b>, literally, 'King was there.'
<p><b>Il</b> should not be used as an article in genitive expressions: <b>il midor chinach</b> 'the mother of the bride' (not <i>*ilach chinach</i>).
<h4><a name="Case"><font color="#000060">Case usage</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The subject is expressed in the nominative, the direct object in the <u>accusative</u>:
<blockquote>
<b>Il elorî badhâ <u>ila elore</u>. </b>
<br><i>The king hit the queen.</i>
<p><b>Il elorê badhâ <u>zei giru</u>. </b>
<br><i>The queen hit the horse.</i>
<p><b>Il gir badhâ <u>ila kôshka</u>. </b>
<br><i>The horse hit the cat.</i>
</blockquote>
Nominal indirect objects are expressed by men using the <i><font color="#FF8080">dative</font></i>; by women using the preposition <b>a</b> followed by the <u>accusative</u>:
<blockquote>
<b>Di il shkuchua <i><font color="#FF8080">âdhechua eri</font></i>. </b>
<br><i>I gave the pig to my church. [male]</i>
<p><b>Di il shkuchua a <u>âdhechu er</u>. </b>
<br><i> [female]</i>
</blockquote>
Destinations are expressed the same way:
<blockquote>
<b>Il klâtandu laodê <i><u>mashtanê</i></u>. </b>
<br><i>The priest is going to the city. [male]</i>
<p><b>Il klâtandu laodê a <u>mashtana</u>. </b>
<br><i> [female]</i>
</blockquote>
Prepositions govern the <u>accusative</u>, though some male writers, following Caďinorian and Verdurian usage, use the <i><font color="#FF8080">dative</font></i> for locative expressions (as opposed to those expressing movement).
<blockquote>
<b>Il salhê naku laodê a <u>kelere</u>. </b>
<br><i>The dirty man is heading for the river.</i>
<p><b>Il tren letâ tra<u> kôrke</u></b>.
<br><i>The turtle flew across the canyon.</i>
<p><b>Dom eri ê tra <u>kelere</u></b>.
<br><i>My house is across the river.</i>
<p><b>Dom eri ê tra <i><font color="#FF8080">kelerê</font>.</i></b>
<br><i>[same, for male pedants]</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The <font color="#8080FF">genitive</font> is used for possessives: <b>hôrt <font color="#8080FF">elorîo</font></b> 'the king's toe'. Note that declinable possessive adjectives, not pronominal genitives, are used for most pronouns: <b>sinor eri</b> 'my mother-in-law'; genitive <font color="#8080FF">sinorach orich</font>; plural <i>sinorâ ori</i>; pl. acc. <i><u>sinorêi orî</i></u>, etc.
<p>In expressions involving a superior in rank ("the boy's master"), the inferior does not appear in the <font color="#8080FF">genitive</font>, but in the <i><font color="#FF8080">dative</font></i> (in male speech, or using 3s pronouns) or <b>a</b> + <u>accusative</u> (in female speech):
<blockquote>
<b>pidi <i><font color="#FF8080">ekuna</font></i> </b><i>the prince's father [male speech]</i>
<br><b>pidi a <u>ekun</u> </b><i>[female speech]</i>
<br><b>pidi <font color="#FF8080"><i>âta</i></font> </b><i>his father (he = the prince)</i>
<p><b>medh <font color="#8080FF">ekuno</font> </b><i>the prince's son</i>
<br><b>medh <font color="#8080FF">âti</font> </b><i> his son </i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Second"><font color="#000060">Second person pronouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
In male speech, speaking to peers or superiors, naked <b>lê</b> 'you' is avoided, in favor of titles. Note that second-person verbs are used with these expressions:
<blockquote>
<b><u>Il shkokh</u> ful nhê fin? </b>
<br><i>Would you (lit., the governor) like some wine?</i>
<p><b><u>Il klâtandu</u> sîk amêti ibor? </b>
<br><i>You (the priest) didn't bring the book?</i>
<p><b>Moru <u>duzorech</u> tekê dorovê?</b>
<br><i> Your (the mayoress's) husband is fine?</i>
</blockquote>
</b>Children (up to the <b>nakî</b> or manhood ceremony) use <b>lê</b> for everyone. So do women: it's considered cute in women (and very offensive in men) to address everyone in this 'childlike' way.
<p>Note that <b>lê</b> or a title is almost always explicitly inserted, except with imperatives, since the verb endings alone do not always distinguish second from first or third person. (Only one <b>lê</b> is necessary in a multi-verb sentence, however.)
<p>(As a corollary, first and third person subject pronouns are not necessary, and are included only for emphasis or contrast, or when conjoined.)
<h4><a name="subjunctive"><font color="#000060">The subjunctive</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The subjunctive is used for doubtful or desired events:
<blockquote>
<b>Ful chî kir eri <u>olôntmâ</u>. </b>
<br><i>I want my wife to be sorry. </i>
<p><b>Ditt chî <u>rênshtanmê</u>.</b>
<br><i>I doubt that she'll come back.</i>
<p><b>Laodê noê? <u>Nozê</u>. </b>
<br><i>Is it going to rain? It might rain.</i>
</blockquote>
A conditional expression is formed using the subjunctive as well. There is no word 'if'; the condition is expressed using a participle (as in Caďinor):
<blockquote>
<b>Lê roi in gâtûta, lê <u>lodê</u> trai.</b>
<br><i>If you cheat [lit., you cheating] at dice, you will die.</i>
<p><b>Il elorî sîk ezê in dom, ât <u>fâ</u> ku mashke âti.</b>
<br><i>If the king is not [lit., not being] at home, he is with his mistress.</i>
</blockquote>
With the <font color="#0000E0">indicative</font>, the conditionality of these sentences disappears; they become statements of causation:
<blockquote>
<p><b>Lê roi in gâtûta, lê <font color="#0000E0">laodê</font> trai.</b>
<br><i>Because you're cheating, you're dying.</i>
<br><b>Il elorî sîk ezê in dom, ât <font color="#0000E0">ê</font> ku mashke âti.</b>
<br><i>The king not being at home, he is (therefore) with his mistress.</i>
</blockquote>
A relative clause refers to a definite entity if it uses the indicative, to a potential or indefinite one if the subjunctive is used:
<blockquote>
<b>Sa tênil naku kêt <font color="#0000E0">pêchâ</font> boradhu er. </b>
<br><i>I am looking for the man who (I know) killed my brother.</i>
<p><b>Sa tênil naku kêt <u>pêchtri</u> boradhu er. </b>
<br><i>I am looking for a man who (might have) killed my brother.</i>
</blockquote>
<font size=-1 color="#000000">Note that we cannot say <b>il naku</b>, because this usage of <b>il</b> requires a previous reference.</font>
<p>Finally, note that women (but not men) use the subjunctive as a polite imperative:
<blockquote>
<b><u>Shtanmê</u> in dom êr <u>azet</u>! </b><i>Come inside and sit down!</i>
<br><b><u>Prenmê</u> nhê dinhe! </b><i>Have some melon!</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Prepositions"><font color="#000060">Prepositions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
The following chart gives the commonest prepositions, with their base meanings.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr>
<td><b>a</td>
<td>to, at, during</td>
<td><b>khip</td>
<td>under, below, till</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>achu</td>
<td>(away) from</td>
<td><b>ko</td>
<td>near, by, alongside</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>akh</td>
<td>against</td>
<td><b>ku</td>
<td>with, alongside, like</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>ap</td>
<td>using, with</td>
<td><b>ôn</td>
<td>among, at, within</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>chint</td>
<td>around</td>
<td><b>pâkh</td>
<td>almost, like</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>dichi</td>
<td>for, because of</td>
<td><b>prêd</td>
<td>before, in front of</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>et</td>
<td>about</td>
<td><b>sa</td>
<td>through(out)</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>horad</td>
<td>despite, although</td>
<td><b>si</td>
<td>on, on top of, above</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>im</td>
<td>in, inside</td>
<td><b>sup</td>
<td>after, following, since</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>ish</td>
<td>out of; made of</td>
<td><b>tra</td>
<td>across, over, beyond</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
Prepositions govern the accusative. Some pedants, following Caďinor usage, distinguish between locative phrases (with dative) and adessive (with accusative); see <a href="#Case">Case usage</a>.
<p>Time expressions always use prepositional phrases (unlike Verdurian): <b>a ôntru</b> 'in the morning' (cf. Ver. <i>utron</i>), <b>a mere khora</b> 'at the third hour', <b>sa nôchu</b> 'for a night', <b>khip kâdhue</b> 'till ceďnare', <b>sup il fiêtor</b> 'after that evening'.
<h4><a name="Phatic"><font color="#000060">Phatic particles</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Barakhinei end most of their (spoken) sentences with emphatic particles, which differ between male and female speech. These particles can serve to:<ul>
<li> emphasize one's point (m <b>ma</b>, f <b>zêl</b>)
<li> assert or ask for solidarity (male-to-male <b>bra</b>, female-to-female <b>beler</b>)
<li> ask a question (m <b>shkê</b>, f <b>pêza</b>)
<li> express anger (m <b>klât</b>, f <b>kherof</b>)
<li> express disbelief (m <b>shkebûr</b>, f <b>shkepê</b>)
<li> offer pity (female <b>zâdhich</b>)
<li> show lamentation (m <b>kokue</b>, f <b>hozdi</b>)
<li> express the equivalent of "of course" (m <b>shklel</b>, f <b>lême</b>)
<li> or "it's nothing" (m/f <b>foli</b>).</ul>
<b><i>male:</i></b>
<blockquote>
<b>Il ekun fâ âlidên glûmu <u>klât</u>! </b>
<br><i>The prince was a little snot today!</i>
<br><b>Poche nikt âtô shkechubrâ <u>shkebûr</u>? </b>
<br><i>Why hasn't anyone strangled him?</i>
</blockquote>
<b><i>female:</i></b>
<blockquote>
<b>Moru eri renlaodâ ish khichena <u>beler</u>. </b>
<br><i>My husband is back from the front.</i>
<br><b>Sîk ê hakni ishgrima kerof e fôrim giro ish dhan <u>hozdi</u>. </b>
<br><i>It's not easy to get blood and horse dung out of wool.</i>
</blockquote>
The particles are not used in writing (except of course when one wants to represent speech).
<p>(If you're wondering, queens use female particles, and butches use male ones.)
<p>In origin, most of the particles are worn-down expressions: e.g. the solidary particle <b>bra</b> comes from <i>boradh eri</i> 'my brother'; the lamentative <b>kokue</b> derives from <i>kaoku eza</i> 'we are destroyed'; the compassion particle <b>zâdhich</b> is from <i>hoz âdhich</i> 'the god's mercy'.
<p>If a sentence already has an adverb with pragmatic force (e.g. <b>purho</b> 'certainly', <b>sîmeli</b> 'not at all'), a phatic particle should not be used as well.
<p>The particles listed are those common in northern dialect; they vary between dialects and tend to change over time. Foreigners are not expected to master the nuances.
<h4><a name="Negation"><font color="#000060">Negation</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
To negate a sentence, <i>sîk</i> is inserted before the main verb, or <i>sî</i> before a nonverbal element to be negated.
<blockquote>
<p><b>Sîk krecha ilî chinzikhî. </b>
<br><i>We didn't eat the gooseberries.</i>
<p><b>Krecha sî chinzikhî, ak lomî. </b>
<br><i>It wasn't gooseberries that we ate, but apples.</i>
</blockquote>
As in Engish, double negatives are discouraged, and can be interpreted 'logically': <i>Nikt krecha</i> 'We ate nothing'; <i>Sî nikt krecha</i> 'We didn't eat nothing' = 'We ate something'. However, in areas with strong Verdurian influence, such as Hroth and the Western Wild, Verdurian-style double negatives with a single negative meaning are used, and there is a transition zone (the foothills of the Elkarin mountains) where they are avoided entirely.
<h4><a name="Questions"><font color="#000060">Questions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
In speech, a yes-no question can be formed simply by intonation: <i>Ê rochi?</i> 'Is he crazy?' Or the <a href="#Phatic">phatic particles</a> can be added.
<blockquote>
<b>Il elorê chilorê shkreve? </b>
<br><i>The queen needs a beer?</i>
<p><b>Chilorê shkreve shkê? </b>
<br><i>She needs a beer, does she? (f. </i>pêza<i>)</i>
</blockquote>
In writing, however, the approved method (derived from Caďinor) is to replace the indicative of the main verb with the subjunctive.
<blockquote>
<b>Il elorê <u>chilormê</u> shkreve? </b>
<br><i>Does the queen need a beer?</i>
</blockquote>
There is no question mark in the mountain alphabet; the period ends all sentences.
<h4><a name="Clauses"><font color="#000060">Clauses</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Subordinate clauses are introduced with the conjunction <b>chî</b>:
<blockquote>
<p><b>Rheda <u>chî ezarzh eri sêth roi</u>. </b>
<br><i>I believe that my steward is cheating me.</i>
</blockquote>
A relative clause works about the same way. The relative pronoun (<b>kêsht</b>) normally follows its head noun.
<blockquote>
<b>Saodor eri ê tênil naku kêt pêchâ boradhu tandê. </b>
<br><i>My sister is looking for the man who killed our brother.</i>
<p><b>Sâ kashki akh naku <u>kêtô ukôrbâ boradh tandê</u>. </b>
<br><i>I am hiding from the man whom our brother insulted.</i>
</blockquote>
As in Verdurian, but unlike English, verbs with sentential subjects don't need to be fronted:
<blockquote>
<b><u>Chî il elorî ê renê kaokuhmê</u> zêth fichilê.</b>
<br><i>It's likely that the king is sloshed again.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="References"><font color="#000060">References</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
<h4><a name="Conventional"><font color="#000060">Conventional expressions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Male and female versions are given where appropriate. <b>(p)</b> is a placeholder for a particle of the speaker's choice; see <a href="#Phatic">Phatic particles</a> above.
For <b>lê</b>, males should substitute a title for peers and superiors.
<p><b>Âdhi eshtûn (ku lê). Lê dan pe/belhu.
<br></b><i>(Pagan greetings) The gods be (with you). May they give you peace/glory.</i>
<p><b>Eledha eshtê ku lê. Lê da pe/belhu.
<br></b><i>(Eleďe greetings) Eleď be with you Eleď give you peace/glory.</i>
<p><b><i>(m) </i>Lê ê shkê? Kêt shkê? Shtan bra. Az.
<br><i>(f) </i>Lê ê kêsht pêza? Kêt ê pêza? Shtanmê beler. Azet.</b>
<br><i>Are you there? Who is it? Come in. Sit down.</i>
<br><font size=-1 color="#000000">(For <b>Shtan bra</b> read <b>Shtan ma</b> (f. <b>zêl</b>) for a visitor of the opposite sex, or one not known very well.)</font>
<p><b>Kênz shtanê (p)? Dorovê (p). Sîk nhini (p). Mehmê é (p).</b>
<br><i>How are you? In good health. I'm not complaining. Same ol' same ol'.</i>
<p><b>Froê shtanê (p). Fôshtre no (p)! Âl adône ê pâkh rot (p).
<br></b><i>It's cold out. Damn rain. This room is like ice.</i>
<p><b>Râdh leri sâ. Fichilâ meli facheka akh lê bra.
<br></b><i>I am your servant. I look forward to good fighting with you.</i>
<p><b><i>(m) </i>Or. Sîk ma. Epê eza. Sîk shkriva ma. Sîk kirez kirezêlî ilo kêshto klât.
<br><i>(f) </i>Or zêl. Sîk zêl. Epê eza. Sîk shkriva zêl. Sîk kirezmê kirezêlî ilo kêshto kherof.
<br></b><i>Yes. No. Maybe. I don't know. Don't ask such questions.</i>
<p><b>Achel leri. Mûnite sâ (p). Fuch lerchê. Olontâ (p).
<br></b><i>Please. Thank you. You're welcome. Excuse me. I'm sorry.</i>
<p><b>Subra dêna. Ôterâ lerî âluthî (p). Fichilâ foela beler. Meli facheka bra!
<br></b><i>Till tomorrow. I know your virtues. I expect a letter (f/f). Good fighting! (m/m)</i>
<p><font size=-1 color="#000000">( The blessings given as greetings above can also be used when parting. <i>Ôterâ lerî aluthî</i> is a polite salutation for either sex; for men one may substitute <i>lônd</i> 'honor' or <i>zôlant</i> 'strength'.)</font>
<p><b>Tenî shkolî zônî (shkê/pêza)? Tena tedêsht e pao zônî.
<br></b><i>How old are you? I'm 24.</i>
<p><b>Il khor ê kê (shkê/pêza)? Il khor ê pao shkiredach.
<br></b><i>What time is it? It's 4 in the afternoon.</i>
<p><b><i>(m) </i>Lê nomê shkê? Êk lhua ma. Leri pidi ê kônu shkê?
<br><i>(f) </i>Lê nomê kênz pêza? Êk lhua zêl. Leri pidi fâ kônu pêza?
<br></b><i>What's your name? I love you. Your father is rich?</i>
<h4><a name="Calendar"><font color="#000060">Calendar</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0"><td colspan=2><b>Days of the week </b>
<td rowspan=2><b>Season</b>
<td colspan=3><b>Months of the year </b>
<tr bgcolor="#B0EEB0">
<td><i>Barakhinei</td>
<td><font color="#008000"><i>Verdurian</i></font></td>
<td><i>Barakhinei</td>
<td><font color="#008000"><i>Verdurian</i></font></td>
<tr>
<td><b>kândên</td>
<td><font color="#008000">scúreden</font></td>
<td><b>demêtri</b> (spring)</td>
<td><b>olashk</td>
<td><font color="#008000">olašu</font></td>
<tr>
<td><b>shkirdên</td>
<td><font color="#008000">shirden</font></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>rêslek</td>
<td><font color="#008000">reli</font></td>
<tr>
<td><b>fidordên</td>
<td><font color="#008000">fidren</font></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>kirêndôn</td>
<td><font color="#008000">cuéndimar</font></td>
<tr>
<td><b>kaldên</td>
<td><font color="#008000">calten</font></td>
<td><b>âshta </b>(summer)<b></td>
<td><b>feorêl</td>
<td><font color="#008000">vlerëi</font></td>
<tr>
<td><b>chirdên</td>
<td><font color="#008000">zëden</font></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>kal</td>
<td><font color="#008000">calo</font></td>
<tr>
<td><b>therdên</td>
<td><font color="#008000">néronden</font></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>rêshkulek</td>
<td><font color="#008000">recoltë</font></td>
<tr>
<td><b>kâdhu</td>
<td><font color="#008000">ceďnare</font></td>
<td><b>kulek</b> (fall)<b></td>
<td><b>hak</td>
<td><font color="#008000">yag</font></td>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>gelech</td>
<td><font color="#008000">želea</font></td>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>ishkirêl</td>
<td><font color="#008000">išire</font></td>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>hibreli</b> (winter)<b></td>
<td><b>shkor</td>
<td><font color="#008000">šoru</font></td>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>froek</td>
<td><font color="#008000">froďac</font></td>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>bâziand</td>
<td><font color="#008000">bešana</font></td>
</table>
</blockquote>
The gods' names in the days of the week have mostly been worn down to one syllable. In the Aďivro (and thus in rites deriving from it), fuller forms are used; e.g. <i>Rhavkânach dên</i> 'Rhavcaena's day'.
<p>The fifth-year leap day, <font color="#008000"><i>kasten</i></font> in Verdurian, is <b>kashdên</b>.
<h4><a name="Names"><font color="#000060">Names</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
Barakhinei names still consist of a <i>nom</i> (given name) and patronymic (<i>pidêl</i>); family names (Ver. <i>ženatî</i>) are not used.
<p><b>Pagan</b> names are still normally formed from two name elements, though names of gods, planets, virtues, and plants are also popular. The names are much less stereotyped than in Verdurian or Ismaîn-- there are still several hundred elements in common use, and almost anything in the lexicon is really fair game.
<p>The table below merely gives a few representative samples.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr>
<td><i>Masculine</td>
<td><b>Âdhdu</td>
<td><i>god-given</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><b>Elûtsan</td>
<td><i>virtue lord</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><b>Girôndkhum</td>
<td><i>lion guts</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><b>Kûbâkh</td>
<td><i>righteous core</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><b>Lôndorôth</td>
<td><i>honor sign</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><b>Parklêkh</td>
<td><i>mountain fist</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><b>Zôlpon<i></td>
<td><i>strong warrior</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><b>Bairel</td>
<td><i>coyote</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><b>Kehada</td>
<td><i>emperor Keadau</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Feminine</td>
<td><b>Arksâ</td>
<td><i>bow woman</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i></td>
<td><b>Chivêkeler<i></td>
<td><i>lively river</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i></td>
<td><b>Elirêli</td>
<td><i>lovely melody</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i></td>
<td><b>Ilôdnôch</td>
<td><i>silver night</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i></td>
<td><b>Klachhanta</td>
<td><i>bright amber</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i></td>
<td><b>Noênhu</td>
<td><i>rain-born</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i></td>
<td><b>Sonachilêl</td>
<td><i>dream sky</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i></td>
<td><b>Idura</td>
<td><i>longed for</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i></td>
<td><b>Kôlef</td>
<td><i>the heroine Koleva</td>
<td></td></tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
Below are listed the most common <b>Arašei </b>(Cuzeian) names. These may be given to either Eleďe or pagan children. A + after a feminine name indicates a second declension name (accusative in -<b>e</b>). Masculine names ending in -<b>i</b> are declined as neuters.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr>
<td><i><b>Masculine</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><i><b>Feminine</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</i><tr>
<td>Adairi</td>
<td>Akor</td>
<td>Alôda</td>
<td>Alan</td>
<td>Alôdel</td>
<td>Âlu</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Ambrizi</td>
<td>Anta</td>
<td>Araz</td>
<td>Ambek</td>
<td>Ambriz+</td>
<td>Amizi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Azena</td>
<td>B<u>a</u>nim</td>
<td>Baor</td>
<td>Brinim</td>
<td>Bûzom</td>
<td>Denur</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Barda</td>
<td>Beret</td>
<td>Bishberu</td>
<td>Diazam</td>
<td>Ekadit+</td>
<td>Ekin+</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Bishb<u>i</u>rakh</td>
<td>Brinimi</td>
<td>Chiveya</td>
<td>Epet+</td>
<td>Etech</td>
<td>Etinhi</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Dommava</td>
<td>Dula</td>
<td>Echeleda</td>
<td>Feli</td>
<td>Irizam</td>
<td>Izech+</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Ekuna</td>
<td>Enach</td>
<td>Enotiva</td>
<td>Kaimeli</td>
<td>Koelibo+</td>
<td>Lair+</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Erês</td>
<td>Fiôna</td>
<td>Fisnava</td>
<td>Laled+</td>
<td>Leret+</td>
<td>Leribod+</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Irez</td>
<td>Iriand</td>
<td>Keloizi</td>
<td>Luvor+</td>
<td>Muror+</td>
<td>Nhior+</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Koelira</td>
<td>Leria</td>
<td>Lodikuna</td>
<td>No+</td>
<td>Olezam</td>
<td>Petinum</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Muror</td>
<td>Namazi</td>
<td>Olu</td>
<td>Ridilênd</td>
<td>Ruiz+</td>
<td>Salikhu+</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Oraona</td>
<td><u>O</u>rom</td>
<td>Pomikuna</td>
<td>Siz+</td>
<td>Somezi+</td>
<td>Soren</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Remobû</td>
<td>S<u>a</u>mirêkh</td>
<td>Saor</td>
<td>Teroneli</td>
<td>Tizati</td>
<td>Ioret</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Solezi</td>
<td>Sur</td>
<td>Teronel</td>
<td>Iûr+</td>
<td>Zeli</td>
<td>Zien+</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Zelizi</td>
<td>Zid</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td></tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<b>Eleniki</b> names have only recently become popular, and are simply transliterated from Verdurian, ignoring the " accent: m. <b>Adham, Klemet, Isac, Rhegoro, Vaseo</b>, f. <b>Agadhe, Kladha, Ihana, Prisha, Veachi</b>, etc. The masculine names in -<b>o</b> are invariable, except for a genitive in -<b>ro</b>: <i>Vaseoro</i> 'Vaseo's'. Feminine names in -<b>a</b> follow the first feminine declension: <i>Ihana Ihana Ihanê Ihanach</i>.
<h3><a name="Example"><font color="#000060">Example</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h3>
Plays (<i>adlelekâ</i>, literally 'showings') in the mountain lands are written and performed entirely by women. The women of any castle may put on plays; but in the larger towns they organize permanent acting societies (<i>kudichanti</i>). In these generally some actresses (<i>kunakuli</i>) specialize in male roles, cultivating male speech and mannerisms, and even studying swordfighting like men.
<p>The plays themselves fall into two categories: tales of adventure and romance (<i>mirebeli</i>), often retelling legends of heroes or tales from national history; or social comedies (<i>ridibeli</i>), satires of contemporary nobles, merchants, and clerics. The first are more popular with male audiences, the second with female ones. Troupes are often adept at tailoring a play to their audience, reserving their sharpest satire or frankest treatments of love for an all-female crowd, and toning down caricature and humor when particularly severe lords are in attendance.
<p>Below is an extract from one such play, <i>Lhumudrel</i> by <b>Benhêk</b> of Barakhina, which explores the consequences of crossing gender boundaries; in this extract we see the title character (whose name means 'loves wisdom') inviting herself into a realm of knowledge meant only for men, that of Caďinor and its literature. Her father strenuously objects; though it is significant that he never suggests any alternative <i>occupation--</i> noblewomen were not expected to work; there were servants for that. The consequences will later involve a flight from her husband-to-be, in disguise as a male. She falls in with, and eventually in love with, a wandering scholar-soldier.
<p>There is a happy if implausible ending: the scholar turns out to be a lord, and her fiancé. Thanks to the structure of the play, Benhêk can express some fairly radical notions about women's worth, and freely satirize the prejudices of men-- the conventional ending will smooth any feathers that have been ruffled.
<h4><a name="Benhêk:"><font color="#000060">Benhêk: Lhumudrel akkurê ibru</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
P<font size=2>IDI</font>. Lê di dêshtpao khurinî in ilhachele shtedhe, nhek eri. Kênz lê kâ ihmêti shkê?
<p>L<font size=2>HUMUDREL</font>. Loda lelê chî teket shkrivê. Ihmêti nhêbor khurinî a habele zêl--
<p>P. Nhêbor khurini, habelê ma.
<p>L. Dinî khurinî a kurseleta dichi noz Alôdelach zêl.
<p>P. Dini khurini, kurseletê ma.
<p>L. E dhunî ôkhekî a ibru zêl.
<p>P. Dhuni ôkheki, ibru ma.
<p>L. Il habel fâ ish lanele adirê ku bôrd flavê, e fâ melhu domerê zêl, lê ful tô lelê pêza?
<p>P. Kêtô lê fêti et ibru klât? Kê kêsht ibro ê shkê? Ridibel kokue, sîk eshtê thizi kêbrizê e kolaodê sachêi, ku eli nhêrulo shkebûr.
<p>L. Ê ibor Gêremo.
<p>P. Ibor kêti shkê?
<p>L. Gêremo kêshtorîno zêl.
<p>P. Sup ked zaa impiôn kêshtorîni Barakhinei meli shkê?
<p>L. Ê kadhin meli lême, pidi. Shkrivû chî Gêrem ni im Barakhun pêza? A ilu kili fâ pedher Sua lême.
<p>P. Kadhin meli ma! Sîk shpakh chî lê ûzê ibrê Kadhinu shkebûr!
<p>L. Pidhiê meli foli. Klâtandu sêth komônê tô grima.
<p>P. Sîk sêth plerê sîmeli. Chî redêlu ihmêta kôn ibroi tôshkê-- moru leri laodê shpakhê kêtô? Ak echilê shkrivê Kadhinu, ku chî lê eshtê medh klât! Kêt subrê shkê? Hashk chî lê laodê krêshki khuvî e sitele shkebûr!
<p>L. Pidi eri, sîk kudiz. Ê prôshkalech, nikt ôtrê, dichi shkiredêi hibrelich, ked shkadrant el shkizant sîk zaa lelôn zêl êr ôterêli sîk zaa shtôn...
<p>P. Sîk sêth shtanmê klât. Ê mankel eri, tô hashk-- sîk sâ êk ihmorêl. Sê zôdek midrê leriê, lê sêth komônê ku rêmant. Zeufol eza ma. Achupuu trator. Zêtê laodâ foka felâ klâtandula, e laoda farki shkeî kudekî ma.
<p>L. Achel leri, pidi, sîk thiba sîmeli sêth morê zêl.
<p>P. Achupuâ trator ma. Sîk laodâ tô etfetê ma. Kêshtorîni klât!
<p>P<font size=2>IDI </font>faichi.
<p>L. Bunori somoch hozdi! Poche shpakhi il nom Gêremo pêza? Sû nomê nhê rizundula ridibelech ku-- ku Benhêk, saledhir kalatel foli. Âl khor laodâ manôdê moru êrât hozdi! E sêth pavôndê a nhê rhukh kedi sîk laodâ ôtera nikt, e kêt shkri kedi, tot epê ashkol rêth ôn parêi chî ibor el adlelek sî dêna zaa oîn, kadhin meli el ôtro rhono meli kherof! Zêth fut chî kêshtor dhirtê radu, ak lê, Gêrem, sê sêth chidêl in klerh zêl!
<h4><a name="Benhêk:"><font color="#000060">Benhêk: Lhumudrel buys a book</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
<font size=-1 color="#000000">(A note on the prices mentioned. 9 <i>khurini</i> (large gold pieces) is about 65 Verdurian <i>falî;</i> 3 khurini is 22 <i>falî;</i> and 2 <i>ôkheki</i> (small gold pieces) is 4.8 <i>falî.</i> By Verdurian standards the dress is cheap, reflecting the lower cost of Barakhinei labor; and the book very expensive-- it would cost 2 f in Verduria-city.)</font>
<p>F<font size=2>ATHER</font>. I gave you fourteen gold pieces last month, daughter. How did you spend them?
<p>L<font size=2>HUMUDREL</font>. Let's see if I remember. I spent 9 <i>khurin</i> on a dress--
<p>F. 9 <i>khurin</i> , dress.
<p>L. 3 <i>khurin</i> on a candlestick for Alôdel's wedding.
<p>F. 3 <i>khurin</i>, candlestick.
<p>L. And 2 <i>ôkhek</i> on a book.
<p>F. 2 <i>ôkhek</i>, book.
<p>L. The dress was blue linen with a yellow border, and very pretty, do you want to see it?
<p>F. What's this about a book? What sort of a book is it? Some silly comedy, I suppose, and not something edifying and suitable for women, like a saint's life.
<p>L. It's a book by Genremos.
<p>F. A book by who?
<p>L. Genremos, the philosopher.
<p>F. Since when are they printing philosophers in Barakhinei?
<p>L. Oh, it's in Caďinor, father. Did you know Genremos was born in Barakhún? In those days it was the province of Su:as, of course.
<p>F. In Caďinor! Don't tell me you can read Caďinor!
<p>L. Only a little. The priest helps me work it out.
<p>F. I don't like this at all. For a young woman to be spending money on books is bad enough-- what is your husband going to say? But to be trying to learn Caďinor, as if you were a boy! What next? I suppose you're going to grow balls and a beard!
<p>L. Oh father, don't be upset. It's only a diversion for the winter afternoons, when there's no riding or shooting and people don't come visiting...
<p>F. Well, I won't have it. It's my fault, I suppose-- I haven't married you off. You're a comfort to your mother, you help me with the accounts. Selfish of us. Put it off too long. Tomorrow I'll send for your uncle the priest, and we'll make up for lost time.
<p>L. Please, father, I'm not in any hurry to get married.
<p>F. I've put it off too long indeed. I won't discuss it. Philosophers!<i>(Leaves.)
<p></i>L. Oh, cruel fate! Why did I mention the name of Genremos? If I had named some writer of comedies, like-- like Benhêk, I would have just received a scolding. Now I am to receive a husband as well! And be carted off to some castle where I don't know anyone, and who knows where, perhaps so far up in the mountains they've never heard of a book or a play, in Caďinor or any other language! Philosophy is supposed to open the mind, but you, Genremos, you have closed me up in a trap!
<h4><a name="Comparison"><font color="#000060">Comparison with Verdurian</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></font></a></h4>
In the interests of language comparison, here is the last paragraph of the sample text again, in Barakhinei and translated line by line into Verdurian.
<p>Bunori somoch hozdi! Poche shpakhi il nom Gêremo pêza?
<br><font color="#008000">Samiosë Bunori! Prokio pavetnai so nom Žendromei?</font>
<p>Sû nomê nhê rizundula ridibelech ku-- ku Benhêk, saledhir kalatel foli.
<br><font color="#008000">Esli nomnai ti-crivece ridibodëi, com-- com Benëcan, santelece et ascele. </font>
<p>Âl khor laodâ manôdê moru êrât hozdi!
<br><font color="#008000">Nun tu sen dome otál maris!</font>
<p>E sêth pavôndê a nhê rhukh kedi sîk laodâ ôtera nikt, e kêt shkri kedi,
<br><font color="#008000">Er tu et nasitme ti-řükán ktë řo otermai nikto, er ke šri ktë,</font>
<p>tot epê ashkol rêth ôn parêi chî ibor el adlelek sî dêna zaa oîn,
<br><font color="#008000">eššane otal ret im parnen dy rho šrifcu nikagdá kio e ivro iy ralinë, </font>
<p>kadhin meli el ôtro rhono meli kherof!
<br><font color="#008000">im caďinán iy nibán otren řonán!</font>
<p>Zêth fut chî kêshtor dhirtê radu, ak lê, Gêrem, sê sêth chidêl in klerh zêl!
<br><font color="#008000">Zet ditave dy soa ripriroda tun uve so razum, ac le, Žendrom, ya et cüzre im áiočak!</font>
<p>It's worth noting that there are a good many more cognates than is apparent from this sample, but they are obscured by idiom and semantic change. The Barakhinei future (<i>laodâ ôtera</i> 'I'm going to know') would be understood in Verdurian, for instance, since a similar construction is used in Ctésifon (<font color="#008000"><i>lädai oteran</i></font>), and there is a Verdurian cognate to <i>kêshtor</i> 'philosophy'-- <font color="#008000"><i>kestora</i></font>-- but it is now limited to only part of the field, what we would call natural philosophy.
<p>On the other hand, <i>somoch</i> and <font color="#008000"><i>samiose</i></font> 'cruel' are not cognates; the Barakhinei word derives from the name of the Somoyi, the nearest barbarians and former masters of the mountain realm; while the Verdurian word means 'merciless' (<font color="#008000"><i>sam iosun</i></font>).
<h3><a href="baralex.htm">Click here for the Lexicon</a></h3>
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