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<h2><a name="contents"><a name="contents">Axunašin</a> / <img src="illo/axunashin.gif" align="absmiddle"> </font></a></h2>
<br><a href="#Introduction"><b>Introduction</b></a>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Ezichimi">The Ezičimi</a>
<a href="#Axunaic">The Axunaic languages</a>
<a href="#empire">The empire</a>
<a href="#Descendants">Descendants</a>
</i></font>
<br><a href="#Phonology"><b>Phonology</b></a>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Consonants">Consonants</a>
<a href="#Vowels">Vowels</a>
<a href="#Stress">Stress</a>
<a href="#Phonological">Phonological constraints</a>
</i></font>
<br><a href="#Morphology"><b>Morphology</b></a>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Nominal">Nominal Morphology</a>
<a href="#Adjectival">Adjectival Morphology</a>
<a href="#Adverbs">Adverbs</a>
<a href="#Pronouns">Pronouns</a>
</i></font>
<br><a href="#Verbal"><b>Verbal Morphology</b></a>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#indicative">The indicative</a>
<a href="#subjunctive">The subjunctive</a>
<a href="#negative">The negative mood</a>
<a href="#izem">izem 'to be'</a>
<a href="#Imperative">Imperative</a>
<a href="#Numbers">Numbers</a>
</i></font>
<br><a href="#Derivational"><b>Derivational Morphology</b></a>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Nominalizations">Nominalizations</a>
<a href="#Adjectivizations">Adjectivizations</a>
<a href="#Verbalizations">Verbalizations</a>
</i></font>
<br><a href="#Syntax"><b>Syntax</b></a>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#Sentence">Sentence word order</a>
<a href="#NP">Noun phrases</a>
<a href="#NP">NP word order</a>
<a href="#Cases:">Cases: 'Nominative' and 'accusative'</a>
<a href="#hierarchy">The hierarchy</a>
<a href="#Later">Later developments</a>
<a href="#Annotated">Annotated example</a>
<a href="#Oblique">Oblique cases</a>
<a href="#Agreement">Agreement</a>
<a href="#Simple">Simple verbs</a>
<a href="#Tense">Tense</a>
<a href="#intensive">The intensive</a>
<a href="#subjunctive">The subjunctive</a>
<a href="#negative">The negative</a>
<a href="#npron">Negative pronouns</a>
<a href="#imper">The imperative</a>
<a href="#Prepositional">Prepositional phrases</a>
<a href="#Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a>
</i></font>
<br><a href="#Transformations"><b>Transformations</b></a>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#1.">1. Subordination</a>
<a href="#2.">2. Sentential objects with indicative</a>
<a href="#3.">3. Sentential objects with subjunctive</a>
<a href="#4.">4. Clause reversal</a>
<a href="#5.">5. Causation and consequence</a>
<a href="#6.">6. The conditional</a>
<a href="#7.">7. Pronominalization</a>
<a href="#8.">8. Subject deletion</a>
<a href="#9.">9. Relativization</a>
<a href="#10.">10. Clefting</a>
<a href="#11.">11. Nominalization</a>
<a href="#12.">12. The progressive</a>
<a href="#13.">13. Causatives</a>
<a href="#14.">14. Adverbialization </a>
<a href="#15.">15. Adverbialization movement</a>
<a href="#16.">16. Simile</a>
<a href="#17.">17. Question formation with particles</a>
<a href="#18.">18. Question clefting</a>
<a href="#19.">19. Question formation with pronouns</a>
<a href="#20.">20. Interrogative movement</a>
<a href="#21.">21. Topicalization</a>
<a href="#22.">22. Conjoint reduction</a>
<a href="#23.">23. Adjective complements</a>
</i></font>
<br><a href="#Examples"><b>Examples</b></a>
<font size=-1><i>
<a href="#ex1">The hundred flowers of Axunai</a>
<a href="#ex2">The ways of Benkeriz</a>
<a href="#ex3">The cheating Skourene</a>
</i></font>
<br><a href="axunlex.htm"><b>Lexicon</b></a>
<br><a href="axunwrite.htm"><b>The syllabary</b></a>
<hr>
<h3><a name="Introduction">Introduction</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h3>
Axunašin is the language of Axunai, the great ancient empire of southern Ereláe, and ancestor of <a href="xurnash.htm">Xurnese</a> (and its many dialects) and Ṭeôši.
<p>As an Eastern language, related to Caďinor and Cuêzi, its overall structure will be familiar to students of Almea, and it isn't as un-Englishlike as Kebreni or Elkarîl. However, it does many things in a very different way from English, and uses its morphological forms differently. One should never translate mechanically into or from Axunašin; the choice of forms follows a different logic and requires careful thought.
<center><img src="axunai.gif" width="733" height="455" title="Axunai ZE 1024"></center>
<h4><a name="Ezichimi">The Ezičimi</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
The language derives from proto-Eastern, the language of the Eastern peoples who, starting about -350 Z.E., exploded from their homeland in Bolon northward into the Svetla-Eärdur Plain, where they developed into the Cuzeians and Caďinorians, and southward into the Xengi plain.
<p>These latter invaders, who called themselves simply the <i>Ezičimi</i>, the Powerful, conquered an older and more sophisticated civilization, the <b>Wede:i</b>. They were wise enough to leave its technology and cultural institutions alone, merely assuming the top rank in the social structure.
<p>In the early years a Wede:i-based pidgin seems to have developed to allow the conquerors to make themselves understood. Some of its words managed to replace their equivalents in Axunašin, such as <i>gume</i> 'man' and <i>zim</i> 'woman'. (The lack of gender in Wede:i may have contributed to the perceived lack of connection between sex and grammatical gender in Axunašin, as evidenced by these two words, which in proto-Eastern terms were assigned the 'wrong' gender.) Such Wede:i loan-words as <i>yati</i> 'give orders', <i>tagi</i> 'stop', <i>kalik</i> 'be pleasing', <i>ruti</i> 'manage' would obviously have been useful in this early social situation.
<p>Sometimes there was not replacement but a semantic split: <ul>
<li> Wede:i <i>yati</i> was to give orders to servants; Eastern <i>kezi</i> was the lawgiving of gods and kings
<li> Wede:i <i>wawa</i> and Axunašin <i>dič</i> once both meant 'baby', but the latter was used only for highborn babies, and came to mean 'heir'
<li> Wede:i <i>šigu</i> was manual labor, Eastern <i>neji</i> was craftwork, freeman's labor.</ul>
The Ezičimi also borrowed words for concepts that were new to them: from <i>ituri</i> and <i>šebari</i> 'read, write' and <i>sim</i> 'character'; to <i>runi</i> 'govern', <i>lejegu</i> 'official', <i>rimi</i> 'weave', <i>louji </i>'money' and <i>ninmali</i> 'trade', down to lowly words like <i>gokime</i> 'canister' and <i>šoban</i> 'oatmeal'. There were also new natural wonders, such as <i>gourtu</i> 'sea', <i>douga</i> 'whale', <i>wete</i> 'birch', or <i>losu</i> 'moose'.
<p>Wede:i has also influenced Axunašin phonology and grammar, down to the inheritence of inflections and syntactic patterns (it also was typically SOV, with adjectives and clauses preceding their head nouns); and, as we will see, its syllabographic <b>writing system</b> was adopted for the writing of Axunašin.
<p>Other languages influenced Axunašin as well, including Jeori, Old Skourene, Tžuro, and Mei.
<h4><a name="Axunaic">The Axunaic languages</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
I have spoken of 'Axunašin' for convenience, but in fact the Eastern dialect spoken by the Ezičimi developed into a half dozen <b>Axunaic</b> languages:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><td><i>Language</i></td>
<td><i>Spoken in</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Axunašin</b></td>
<td>the Xengi delta (Axuna proper)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Mounšun</b></td>
<td>the middle Xengi (the kingdoms of Šinji and Tannaza)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Yeworšin</b></td>
<td>the upper Xengi (the kingdom of Yewor)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Tannelišin</b></td>
<td>Tanel and Gotanel, east of Axuna</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Ranšin</b></td>
<td>the Ran valley (the kingdom of Ran)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Bosanšur</b></td>
<td>the Bolonari valley (the kingdom of Jenevi)</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>We have scant but intriguing records from several of these, especially the more urbanized kingdoms along the Xengi and on the ocean—though our knowledge is maddeningly limited by the syllabographic writing system, which hides regional variations and sound changes. Still, we know enough to compare a few words across the major dialects:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><td><b><i></b></td>
<td></i><b>Eastern</td>
<td>Axunašin</td>
<td>Mounšun</td>
<td>Yeworšin</td>
<td>Tannelišin</b></td>
<td><b></td></tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'one'</i></td>
<td>*ānu</td>
<td>ame</td>
<td>amu</td>
<td>amə</td>
<td>ano</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'two'</i></td>
<td>*duna</td>
<td>vume</td>
<td>vume</td>
<td>dumə</td>
<td>vum</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'three'</i></td>
<td>*dīm</td>
<td>dime</td>
<td>jime</td>
<td>diə</td>
<td>vim</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'tree'</i></td>
<td>*arebs</td>
<td>eriz</td>
<td>eriz</td>
<td>eres</td>
<td>eriv</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'bull'</i></td>
<td>*bōns</td>
<td>bouz</td>
<td>boiz</td>
<td>bois</td>
<td>bouz</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'eat'</i></td>
<td>*kregem</td>
<td>kejim</td>
<td>kueji</td>
<td>kuiji</td>
<td>kejin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'master'</i></td>
<td>*maks</td>
<td>mex</td>
<td>mex</td>
<td>mes</td>
<td>mîk</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'foot'</i></td>
<td>*naga</td>
<td>neje</td>
<td>neje</td>
<td>nejə</td>
<td>neja</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'snow'</i></td>
<td>*nīkte</td>
<td>nixi</td>
<td>nixi</td>
<td>niki</td>
<td>niski</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'we'</i></td>
<td>*tāsu</td>
<td>taz</td>
<td>taz</td>
<td>tas</td>
<td>tais</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>'holy'</i></td>
<td>*ghrem</td>
<td>jeim</td>
<td>juem</td>
<td>juim</td>
<td>jem</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="empire">The empire</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
The language described in this document is that of Axuna during the golden age of the empire, Z.E. 890-1300. <i>Axunašin</i> is the native name, from <i>Axuna-šun</i> 'Axuna langauge'; the modern Xurnese is <i>Asunaši</i>; the Verdurians call it <i>bome ahuenaš</i>.
<p>During this time Axunašin largely replaced its sister languages, except in the Yewor and Tanneli. Thus Yeworšin and Tannelišin persisted until the rise of Xurno. All the modern Axunaic languages are descendants of Axunašin, but <b>Evangri</b> (the dialect spoken around Lake Van and the upper Xengi) is heavily influenced by Yeworšin, and <b>Jimbri</b> (spoken in Tanel and Gotanel) is heavily influenced by Tannelišin. For instance, the word for 'two' in Evangri is still resolutely <i>duma</i> rather than standard <i>buma</i>.
<p>The speakers of Axunašin are the <b><i>Axunemi</b></i>. This term should not be extrapolated into earlier times; before the rise of Axunai the speakers of the Axunaic languages should be referred to as the <i>Ezičimi</i>.
<h4><a name="Descendants">Descendants</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
The tightest-knit region of Axunai (as well as modern Xurno) is the lower and middle Xengi; Mounšun, spoken in the middle Xengi, gave way quickly before Axunašin. Modern <b>Xurnese</b> is derived from the dialect of Curau, but this derives from the Axunašin imported into this area, not from Mounšun—though there are traces of the latter.
<p>Similarly, <b>Ṭeôši</b> derives from Axunašin spoken by the Axunemi who conquered Čeiy starting in 990.
<p>The descendant languages will be discussed on <a href="xurnash.htm">a separate page</a>.
<h3><a name="Phonology">Phonology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h3>
The sound system of Axunašin was as follows:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2>
<td colspan=4><i>consonants</i>
<td bgcolor="#C0FFC0">
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><i>vowels</i>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><i> labial </i>
<td><i> dental </i>
<td><i> palatal </i>
<td><i> velar </i>
<td bgcolor="#C0FFC0">
<td bgcolor="#A0D0A0" colspan=2><i> front </i>
<td bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><i> back </i>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" rowspan=2><i>stops</i>
<td align="center"><b>p</b>
<td align="center"><b>t</b>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>k</b>
<td width="40">
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>b</b>
<td align="center"><b>d</b>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>g</b>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>i</b>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>u</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>affricates </i>
<td>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>č</b>
<td align="center"><b>x</b>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>ei</b>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>ou</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" rowspan=2><i>fricatives</i>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>s</b>
<td align="center"><b>š</b>
<td>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>e</b>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>o</b>
<tr>
<td align="center"><b>v</b>
<td align="center"><b>z</b>
<td align="center"><b>j</b>
<td>
<td>
<td>
<td align="center"><b> a</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>nasals </i>
<td align="center"><b>m</b>
<td align="center"><b>n</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>laterals</i>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>l</b>
<td align="center"><b>r</b>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><i>semivowels</i>
<td align="center"><b>w</b>
<td>
<td align="center"><b>y</b>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Consonants">Consonants</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
<b>t </b>and <b>d</b> are dental, rather than alveolar, as in English. <b>g</b> is always hard, as in <i>get.</i>
<p>The stops <b>b d g</b> are fully voiced, as in French. (In English they're only fully voiced intervocalically; the "voiced/unvoiced" distinction is based largely on aspiration, not voice.)
<p>The <b>l</b> is clear initially and before vowels, dark before consonants and finally, as in English. The <b>r</b> is an approximant, not flapped or trilled, but much more fronted than the standard Midwestern r.
<p>There is some controversy over the pronunciation of <b>č x j</b>. <ul>
<li> <b>č</b> derives from proto-Eastern *<i>ts</i> and Wede:i ź; the Xurnese reflex is <i>č</i> = /tʃ/ and the Ṭeôši is retroflex <i><b>t</b></i>. Most scholars interpret it as /tʃ/.<p>
<li> <b>x</b> derives from PE *<i>ks</i> or *<i>kt</i>, and is normally interpreted as /ks/ . However, if *<i>ts</i> → /tʃ/, the parallel development should be <i>*ks</i> → /kʃ/, and some hold that this is the correct pronunciation. The Xurnese reflex is initial <i>z</i>, medial <i>s</i>, final <i>ks</i>; the Ṭeôši is initial <i>z</i>, medial <i>k</i>, final <i>s, </i>which is most consistent with /ks/.<p>
<li> <b>j</b> derives from PE *<i><font face="symbol">g</font></i> or medial *<i>g</i> and from Wede:i <i>j</i> = /dʒ/; the Xurnese reflex is /dʒ/ and the Ṭeôši is retroflex <i><b>d</b></i>. The simplest reconstruction is /dʒ/; but we have pleas from classical grammarians to preserve the correct value of this sound, which would seem like unneeded advice if it was simply always /dʒ/. Their positive advice is hard to follow, but they mention that the sound is more like <b>š</b> than like <b>č</b>. This could mean that it was /ʒ/, but I prefer to reconstruct /ʝ/ (like the <i>ch</i> in German <i>ich</i>, but voiced) or /ɟ/, which is closer to *<font face="symbol">g</font>; this also fits in better with borrowings like <i>Munjaz </i>← <i>Munkhâsh.</i></ul>
Some scholars have argued that all three were affricates or clusters
/tʃ ks dʒ/
or fricatives /ç x ʝ/.
<h4><a name="Vowels">Vowels</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
Among the vowels, <b>e</b> and <b>o</b> are open /ɛ/, /ɔ/; <b>ei</b> and <b>ou</b> were most likely closed /e/ and /o/, but may also have been diphthongs /ɛj/, /ɔw/, rather as in English <i>late</i>, <i>low</i>.
(They are transliterated as digraphs both because historically they often derive from diphthongs, and because the Axunašin syllabary represented them with glyphs that the Wede:i had used for diphthongs (<b>ai</b> and <b>au</b> respectively). It may also be relevant that Old Skourene <i>Skouras</i>, with diphthongal <i>ou</i>, was borrowed as <b>Kouraz</b>.)
<p>With the exception of <b>ei</b> and <b>ou</b>, vowels in vowel combinations should be given their full value: the ending of <i>Axunai</i> is bisyllabic [a i], not the diphthong [aj].
<p>The combination <b>e </b>+<b> i</b> /ɛi/ is transliterated <b>eï</b>. As in words like <i>naïve</i>, the diaresis is a reminder to pronounce the second vowel separately. Compare <b>nivei</b> /nive/ 'kings', <b>niveï</b> /nivɛi/ 'emperor'. (<b>ei</b> + <b>i</b> /ei/ as in <b>reii </b>'flow' is another possibility; there's no worry that it might conflict with <b>e + i + i</b> since this would become <b>eyi</b>.)
<h4><a name="Stress">Stress</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
The Axunašin accent is normally on the second-to-last syllable, and is indicated if it falls elsewhere: <i>dúsodeiz</i>; but <i>peivideiz</i> = <i>peivídeiz</i>. The same word serves as a reminder that <b>ei</b> and <b>ou</b> count as one syllable, not two.
<p>A few examples:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>beivi</b> /'be vi/</td>
<td><b>Axunai</b> /a ksu 'na i/</td>
<td><b>čejim</b> /'tʃɛ ʝim/</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>silede</b> /si 'lɛ dɛ/</td>
<td><b>japou</b> /'ʝa po/</td>
<td><b>gelmi</b> /'gɛ<s>l</s> mi/</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>emouriš</b> /ɛ 'mo riʃ/</td>
<td><b>kerez</b> /'kɛ rɛz/</td>
<td><b>ečiei</b> /ɛ 'tʃi e/</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Phonological">Phonological constraints</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
Axunašin simplified most of the consonant clusters allowed in proto-Eastern, with the result that all syllables have a simple CV or CVC structure. Borrowings are forced to conform: e.g. Old Skourene <i>nşega, smapali → </i><b>enšega, simapali</b>.
<p>No initial consonant clusters are allowed in syllables at all, except those that have been phonemicized (<b>č</b>, <b>x</b>). Vowels are almost always simple (remember that <b>ei</b> and <b>ou</b> are monophthongs); the few exceptions are mostly due to the addition of inflections.
<p>Medially, syllables can end only in <b>r</b>, <b>l</b>, <b>n</b>, <b>m</b>. More latitude is permitted finally, with the addition of <b>s</b>, <b>z</b>, <b>š</b>, <b>č</b>, <b>j</b>, <b>x</b>, <b>k</b>.
(Final -<b>d</b> and -<b>w</b> appear rarely, but are not recognized by the writing system—e.g. <b>giw</b> 'boy-ACC' is simply written with the character for <b>gi</b> 'boy-NOM'.)
<h3><a name="Morphology">Morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h3>
<h4><a name="Nominal">Nominal Morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
Axunašin nouns are inflected by case, number, and gender.
<p>There are four cases, which for convenience I will refer to using the names of the proto-Eastern cases they derive from (<b>nominative, accusative, genitive, locative</b>). As we will see in the usage section, however, their roles diverged significantly from the other Eastern languages.
<p>The three genders are called in Axunašin <b><i>tibel</b></i> 'horse,' <b><i>goro</b></i> 'temple,' and <b><i>čenke</b></i> 'sword'. They derive from the proto-Eastern masculine, neuter, and feminine, respectively; but unlike the Cuzeians and Caďinorians, the Axunemi never linked them to sex—though they did come up with elaborate metaphysical justifications for them.
<p>Curiously, in Axunemi thought, there were three sexes (masculine, feminine, and <i>ewimo </i>'middle'), but these were never connected to the genders. Words inherited from proto-Eastern generally have the gender we'd expect (e.g. m. <i>ewu </i>'grandfather', f. <i>ewume </i>'grandmother'), but borrowed or innovated words don't—e.g. m. <i>zim </i>'woman', from Wede:i.
<p>The basic declensional pattern is as follows:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" colspan=6><b><u>m</u></b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s nom</b></td>
<td>šuz</td>
<td>emou</td>
<td>douga</td>
<td>eč-e</td>
<td>men-u</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s acc</b></td>
<td>šum</td>
<td>emou</td>
<td>douga</td>
<td>eč-e</td>
<td>men-u</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s gen</b></td>
<td>šum-iš</td>
<td>emou-riš</td>
<td>douga-riš</td>
<td>eč-eš</td>
<td>men-eš</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" height="32"><b>loc</b></td>
<td>šum-o</td>
<td>emou-ro</td>
<td>douga-ro</td>
<td>eč-eo</td>
<td>men-o</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl nom</b></td>
<td>šum-i</td>
<td>emou-i</td>
<td>douga-i</td>
<td>eč-ei</td>
<td>men-ui</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl acc</b></td>
<td>šum-i</td>
<td>emou-i</td>
<td>douga-i</td>
<td>eč-ei</td>
<td>men-ui</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl gen</b></td>
<td>šum-iei</td>
<td>emou-rei</td>
<td>douga-rei</td>
<td>eč-iei</td>
<td>men-iei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" colspan=6><b><u>n</u></b></td>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s nom</b></td>
<td>xur-u</td>
<td>wel-i</td>
<td>nive-ï</td>
<td>yal-ou</td>
<td>duxud-o</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s acc</b></td>
<td>xur-um</td>
<td>wel-im</td>
<td>nive-ïm</td>
<td>yal-um</td>
<td>duxud-om</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s gen</b></td>
<td>xur-uš</td>
<td>wel-iš</td>
<td>nive-ïs</td>
<td>yal-uš</td>
<td>duxud-uš</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" height="32"><b>loc</b></td>
<td>xur-o</td>
<td>wel-o</td>
<td>nive-o</td>
<td>yal-o</td>
<td>duxud-o</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl nom</b></td>
<td>xur-ui</td>
<td>wel-ui</td>
<td>nive-wi</td>
<td>yal-ui</td>
<td>duxud-ui</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl acc</b></td>
<td>xur-uim</td>
<td>wel-uim</td>
<td>nive-wim</td>
<td>yal-uim</td>
<td>duxud-uim</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl gen</b></td>
<td>xur-iei</td>
<td>wel-iei</td>
<td>nive-yei</td>
<td>yal-iei</td>
<td>duxud-iei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" colspan=6><b><u>f</u></b></td>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s nom</b></td>
<td>jir-e</td>
<td>nud-i</td>
<td>šug-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s acc</b></td>
<td>jir-a</td>
<td>nud-ie</td>
<td>šug-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s gen</b></td>
<td>jir-ei</td>
<td>nud-iei</td>
<td>šug-iei</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" height="32"><b>loc</b></td>
<td>jir-u</td>
<td>nud-u</td>
<td>šug-u</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl nom</b></td>
<td>jir-ei</td>
<td>nud-ei</td>
<td>šug-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl acc</b></td>
<td>jir-eim</td>
<td>nud-iem</td>
<td>šug-eim</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl gen</b></td>
<td>jir-iei</td>
<td>nud-iei</td>
<td>šug-iei</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>Some levelling has occurred in the descent from proto-Eastern: <ul>
<li> all plural genitives now end in -<b>(i)ei </b>
<li> the -<b>r</b> of <i>emou</i> type nouns—part of the root in the protolanguage—has been interpolated into the pl.gen., making it a sign of the oblique cases
<li> the neuter plurals are now uniform
<li> proto-Eastern feminines in *-e and *-i merged into the -<b>i</b> class, though the -*i plurals previously matched the *a/-<b>e </b>class.</ul>
Words in -<b>a</b> are mostly borrowings from Wede:i, and have joined the <i>emou</i> class.
<p>If plural -<b>ui(m)</b> follows a vowel, it becomes -<b>wi</b>: <i>kurtudai → kurtudawi; niveï → nivewi</i>. Similarly the genitive -<b>iei</b> becomes -<b>yei</b> after a vowel: <i>niveï → niveyei.</i>
<p>It is not always possible to determine the paradigm from the citation form of the noun, the singular nominative case; dictionaries generally specify also the sg. gen. This is particularly important in the case of masculine nouns of the <i>šuz</i> type; the oblique root is not predictable from the sg. nom. form.
<p><font size=2>(The nom.sg. <i>is</i> predictable, in almost all cases, from the oblique root: if the oblique root ends in a voiced stop (<b>b d g n m</b>), the nom. will end in <b>z</b>; if it ends in (<b>p f r l</b>), the nom. ends in <b>s</b>; if it ends in any other letter, the nom. will end in a vowel. It will come as no surprise that the proto-Eastern form was regular and ended in -<i>s</i>: e.g. nom. *<i>xuns</i>, gen. *<i>xunex</i>, which become Axunašin <i>šuz</i>, <i>šumiš</i>.)</font>
<p>If the oblique root of a <i>šuz</i>-class noun ends in -<b>v</b>, the s.acc. ends in -<b>s</b>.
<h4><a name="Adjectival">Adjectival Morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
There are two adjectival declensions, called in Axunašin grammar the <b><i>wel</b></i> 'old' and <b><i>revi</b></i> 'new' classes. The names are not literally accurate (both classes go back to proto-Eastern); they simply exemplify the two classes.
<p>The <b>citation form</b> for adjectives is the masculine singular nominative. <ul>
<li> If it ends in a consonant, or any vowel but -<b>i</b>, it's <i>wel </i>class.
<li> If it ends in -<b>i</b>, it's <i>revi </i>class. </ul>
Adjectives must agree in case and gender with their head nouns.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4><b><i>wel </i>class</b></td>
<td colspan=3><b><i>revi</i> class</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b><i>m</i></b></td>
<td><b><i>n</i></b></td>
<td colspan=2><b><i>f</i></b></td>
<td><b><i>m</i></b></td>
<td><b><i>n</i></b></td>
<td><b><i>f</i></b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s nom </b></td>
<td>wel</td>
<td>wel-ou</td>
<td>wel-e</td>
<td> </td>
<td>rev-i</td>
<td>rev-i</td>
<td>rev-i</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s acc</b></td>
<td>wel</td>
<td>wel-um</td>
<td>wel-a</td>
<td></td>
<td>rev-i</td>
<td>rev-im</td>
<td>rev-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>s gen</b></td>
<td>wel-iš</td>
<td>wel-uš</td>
<td>wel-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td>rev-eš</td>
<td>rev-iš</td>
<td>rev-iei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" height="32"><b>loc</b></td>
<td>wel-o</td>
<td>wel-o</td>
<td>wel-u</td>
<td></td>
<td>rev-io</td>
<td>rev-o</td>
<td>rev-u</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl nom</b></td>
<td>wel-i</td>
<td>wel-ui</td>
<td>wel-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td>rev-ei</td>
<td>rev-ui</td>
<td>rev-ei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl acc</b></td>
<td>wel-i</td>
<td>wel-uim</td>
<td>wel-eim</td>
<td></td>
<td>rev-ei</td>
<td>rev-uim</td>
<td>rev-iem</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>pl gen</b></td>
<td>wel-iei </td>
<td>wel-iei </td>
<td>wel-iei </td>
<td></td>
<td>rev-iei </td>
<td>rev-iei </td>
<td>rev-iei </td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" height="32"><b>adverb</b></td>
<td colspan=4>wel-oyo</td>
<td colspan=3>rev-iwa</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>Some hints:<ul>
<li> <i>Wel </i>adjectives work like the corresponding nouns: compare <i>šuz</i>, <i>yalou</i>, <i>jire</i>.
<li> Same story with neuter and feminine <i>revi </i>adjectives: compare <i>weli, nudi</i>.
<li> Masculine <i>revi</i> adjectives decline like <i>eče</i>, except that the s. nom/acc ends in -<b>i</b>.</ul>
Some <i>wel</i> class adjectives end in a <b>vowel</b> in the citation form—e.g. e.g. <i>meivu</i> 'rich'. A final -<b>r</b> has been lost in the masculine s. nom. and acc. only, and reappears in the remainder of the declension (s. gen. <i>meivuriš</i>, n. nom. <i>meivurou</i>, f. loc. <i>meivuru</i>, etc.).
<h5><a name="Adverbs">Adverbs</font></a></h5>
Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives with the suffixes -<b>oyo</b> (<i>wel</i> class) or -<b>iwa</b> (<i>revi</i> class). Thus: <b>meivuroyo</b> 'richly', <b>šudiwa</b> 'fully'. If the adjective ends with -<b>un</b>, this suffix is removed before adding the adverbial suffix: <b>demuroyo</b> 'for a long time'.
<p>These suffixes never receive stress: <i>meivúroyo, šúdiwa</i>. Since this rule is regular, it is not indicated in grammatical examples or in the Lexicon.
<h4><a name="Pronouns">Pronouns</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
<h5><a name="Personal">Personal pronouns</font></a></h5>
Axunašin has a rather standard six-member pronominal system (plus an interrogative pronoun). Its only unusual feature is the use of a single pronoun, <b>to</b>, used for all three genders (and the three sexes recognized by Axunemi culture) and of course inanimate things as well.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><td></td>
<td><b>I</b></td>
<td><b>thou</b></td>
<td><b>he/she</b></td>
<td><b>we</b></td>
<td><b>you</b></td>
<td><b>they</b></td>
<td><b>who</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>nom</b></td>
<td>siu</td>
<td>ri</td>
<td>to</td>
<td>taz</td>
<td>moš</td>
<td>keï</td>
<td>jei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>gen</b></td>
<td>ir</td>
<td>rir</td>
<td>toiš</td>
<td>tiei</td>
<td>miei</td>
<td>kiei</td>
<td>jeiš</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>acc</b></td>
<td>id</td>
<td>ej</td>
<td>toe</td>
<td>teim</td>
<td>muim</td>
<td>keim</td>
<td>jem</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>dat</b></td>
<td>simu</td>
<td>rimu</td>
<td>tomu</td>
<td>tamu</td>
<td>mumu</td>
<td>keimu</td>
<td>jeimu</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>The Eastern genitives have been remodelled by analogy with the nouns, or in the case of <i>I/thou</i>, replaced with forms derived from the possessive adjectives.
<p>Since verbs show person and number, personal subject pronouns are used only for emphasis (or, as we'll see below, to clarify syntax): <b>Reiloi</b> 'I see' → <b>Siu reiloi</b> '<i>I</i> see', 'Me, I see it.' In the past and future the 1s and 2s forms are identical, so the pronouns can be used for disambiguation; but even this is avoided if the context makes it clear.
<p>Third person object pronouns can be omitted if the meaning is clear: <b>Nive reilei </b>'the King saw it'.
<h5><a name="Other">Other anaphora</font></a></h5>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td colspan=2><i>Demonstratives</i></td>
<td colspan=2><i>Relative pronouns</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ti</b></td>
<td>this/these</td>
<td><b>tidemu</b></td>
<td>then</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tu</b></td>
<td>that/these</td>
<td><b>tinari</b></td>
<td>there</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tič</b></td>
<td>this one</td>
<td><b>eidemu</b></td>
<td>now</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tuč</b></td>
<td>that one</td>
<td><b>einari</b></td>
<td>here</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#B0E0B0" colspan=2><i>Interrogative pronouns </i></td>
<td><b>esidemu</b></td>
<td>everywhere</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>esinari</b></td>
<td>always</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ji</b></td>
<td>which</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>jidemu</b></td>
<td>when</td>
<td><b>wenke</b></td>
<td>somebody</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>jinari</b></td>
<td>where</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>touno</b></td>
<td>why</td>
<td><b>dowogu</b></td>
<td>nobody</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>dowoyo</b></td>
<td>never, nowhere</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>muxinemu</b></td>
<td>often</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>muxinari</b></td>
<td>in many places</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>Other indefinite anaphora were constructed from analytic expressions; e.g. <b>ame naru</b> 'in one place, somewhere'; <b>ti demuro tu mata</b> 'at this time or that, anytime'; <b>ji ende </b>'which way, how'. Useful quantifiers for this are:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>dowo </b></td>
<td>none</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ame </b></td>
<td>one, some</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pu(r) </b></td>
<td>a few, some</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>muxi </b></td>
<td>many</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>esi </b></td>
<td>every</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Verbal">Verbal Morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
Axunašin has a highly inflected verb, incorporating in each lexical form the following information:<ul>
<li> <b>Person</b> and <b>number</b> (agreeing with the subject).
<li> <b>Time</b>: present, past, future.
<li> <b>Intensity</b>: normal or intensive.
<li> <b>Mood</b>: indicative; subjunctive; negative.</ul>
In addition, paradigms vary by verb conjugation. There are three conjugations in Axunašin, which we may refer to by the termination of their infinitive (-<b>ik</b>, -<b>im</b>/<b>em</b>, -<b>i</b>), although Xurnese grammarians, following their usual practice, have given them names based on typical (and symbolic) members of each class: <b><i>ruwik</b></i> 'desire', <b><i>nem</b></i> 'be born', <b><i>kapi</b></i> 'revere'.
<h5><a name="indicative">The indicative</font></a></h5>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Present </b></td>
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Present intensive</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>-i</b></td>
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td><b>-i</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>el-eu</td>
<td>riš-oi</td>
<td>bex-eu</td>
<td> </td>
<td>el-ij-eu</td>
<td>riš-ej-oi</td>
<td>bex-ij-eu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>el-iu</td>
<td>riš-iw</td>
<td>bex-iu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-iu</td>
<td>riš-ej-iw</td>
<td>bex-ij-iu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>el-e</td>
<td>riš-i</td>
<td>bex-i</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-e</td>
<td>riš-ej-i</td>
<td>bex-ij-i</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>el-oumu</td>
<td>riš-omu</td>
<td>bex-umu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-oumu</td>
<td>riš-ej-omu</td>
<td>bex-ij-umu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>el-ouzi</td>
<td>riš-ozi</td>
<td>bex-uzi</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-ouzi</td>
<td>riš-ej-ozi</td>
<td>bex-ij-uzi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>el-utu</td>
<td>riš-itu</td>
<td>bex-utu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-utu</td>
<td>riš-ej-itu</td>
<td>bex-ij-utu</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Past </b></td>
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Past intensive</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>-i</b></td>
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td><b>-i</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>el-i</td>
<td>riš-iu</td>
<td>bex-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-i</td>
<td>riš-ej-iu</td>
<td>bex-ij-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>el-i</td>
<td>riš-iu</td>
<td>bex-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-i</td>
<td>riš-ej-iu</td>
<td>bex-ij-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>el-u</td>
<td>riš-ei</td>
<td>bex-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-u</td>
<td>riš-ej-ei</td>
<td>bex-ij-ei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>el-umu</td>
<td>riš-oumu</td>
<td>bex-eimu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-umu</td>
<td>riš-ej-oumu</td>
<td>bex-ij-eimu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>el-uzi</td>
<td>riš-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-eizi</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-uzi</td>
<td>riš-ej-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-ij-eizi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>el-itu</td>
<td>riš-iutu</td>
<td>bex-ietu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ij-itu</td>
<td>riš-ej-iutu</td>
<td>bex-ij-ietu</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Future </b></td>
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Future intensive</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>-i</b></td>
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td><b>-i</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>el-iv-i</td>
<td>riš-ev-iu</td>
<td>bex-iv-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-inj-i</td>
<td>riš-enj-iu</td>
<td>bex-inj-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>el-iv-i</td>
<td>riš-ev-iu</td>
<td>bex-iv-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-inj-i</td>
<td>riš-enj-iu</td>
<td>bex-inj-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>el-iv-u</td>
<td>riš-ev-ei</td>
<td>bex-iv-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-inj-u</td>
<td>riš-enj-ei</td>
<td>bex-inj-ei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>el-iv-umu</td>
<td>riš-ev-oumu</td>
<td>bex-iv-eimu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-inj-umu</td>
<td>riš-enj-oumu</td>
<td>bex-inj-eimu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>el-iv-uzi</td>
<td>riš-ev-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-iv-eizi</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-inj-uzi</td>
<td>riš-enj-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-inj-eizi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>el-iv-itu</td>
<td>riš-ev-iutu</td>
<td>bex-iv-ietu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-inj-itu</td>
<td>riš-enj-iutu</td>
<td>bex-inj-ietu</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>There are two sets of personal endings, for present and past. Though they may at first seem arbitary, there are patterns:<ul>
<li> The 1s/2s are diphthongs, except for the past of -<b>ik</b> verbs.
<li> The 2s always begins with -<b>i</b>-. In the past it's identical to the 1s.
<li> The 3s is always a single phoneme (recall that <b>ei</b> is a phoneme).
<li> The 1p always ends in -<b>mu</b>, the 2p in -<b>zi</b>, the 3p in -<b>tu</b>.
<ul>
<li>Within any one paradigm, the preceding vowel is the same for 1p and 2p.
<li>In the past, the 3p is the 1s + -<b>tu</b>; in the present, the last vowel of the 1s + -<b>tu</b>.
</ul>
</ul>
<p>The present and past <b>intensive</b> is formed by infixing -<b>ij</b>- (or -<b>ej</b>- for -<b>m</b> verbs) before the present and past endings.
<p>The <b>future</b> is formed by infixing -<b>iv</b>- (or -<b>ev</b>- for -<b>m</b> verbs) before the past endings; the future intensive by infixing -<b>inj</b>- (or -<b>enj</b>- for -<b>m</b> verbs).
<p>If the verb root <b>ends in a vowel</b>, endings that begin with -<b>i</b>V- become -<b>y</b>V. E.g. the past of <b>kuim</b> 'fight' has 1s/2s <b>kuyu</b>, 3p <b>kuyutu</b>.
<h5><a name="subjunctive">The subjunctive</font></a></h5>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Present </b></td>
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Present intensive</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>-i</b></td>
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td><b>-i</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>el-id-eu</td>
<td>riš-im-oi</td>
<td>bex-im-eu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-eu</td>
<td>riš-og-oi</td>
<td>bex-ug-eu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>el-id-iu</td>
<td>riš-im-iw</td>
<td>bex-im-iu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-iu</td>
<td>riš-og-iw</td>
<td>bex-ug-iu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>el-id-e</td>
<td>riš-im-i</td>
<td>bex-im-i</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-e</td>
<td>riš-og-i</td>
<td>bex-ug-i</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>el-id-oumu</td>
<td>riš-im-omu</td>
<td>bex-im-umu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-oumu</td>
<td>riš-og-omu</td>
<td>bex-ug-umu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>el-id-ouzi</td>
<td>riš-im-ozi</td>
<td>bex-im-uzi</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-ouzi</td>
<td>riš-og-ozi</td>
<td>bex-ug-uzi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>el-id-utu</td>
<td>riš-im-itu</td>
<td>bex-im-utu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-utu</td>
<td>riš-og-itu</td>
<td>bex-ug-utu</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Past </b></td>
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Past intensive</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>-i</b></td>
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td><b>-i</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>el-id-i</td>
<td>riš-im-iu</td>
<td>bex-im-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-i</td>
<td>riš-og-iu</td>
<td>bex-ug-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>el-id-i</td>
<td>riš-im-iu</td>
<td>bex-im-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-i</td>
<td>riš-og-iu</td>
<td>bex-ug-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>el-id-u</td>
<td>riš-im-ei</td>
<td>bex-im-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-u</td>
<td>riš-og-ei</td>
<td>bex-ug-ei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>el-id-umu</td>
<td>riš-im-oumu</td>
<td>bex-im-eimu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-umu</td>
<td>riš-og-oumu</td>
<td>bex-ug-eimu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>el-id-uzi</td>
<td>riš-im-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-im-eizi</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-uzi</td>
<td>riš-og-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-ug-eizi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>el-id-itu</td>
<td>riš-im-iutu</td>
<td>bex-im-ietu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ug-itu</td>
<td>riš-og-iutu</td>
<td>bex-ug-ietu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Future </b></td>
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Future intensive</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>-i</b></td>
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td><b>-i</b></td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>el-an-i</td>
<td>riš-en-iu</td>
<td>bex-an-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ung-i</td>
<td>riš-ong-iu</td>
<td>bex-ung-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>el-an-i</td>
<td>riš-en-iu</td>
<td>bex-an-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ung-i</td>
<td>riš-ong-iu</td>
<td>bex-ung-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>el-an-u</td>
<td>riš-en-ei</td>
<td>bex-an-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ung-u</td>
<td>riš-ong-ei</td>
<td>bex-ung-ei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>el-an-umu</td>
<td>riš-en-oumu</td>
<td>bex-an-eimu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ung-umu</td>
<td>riš-ong-oumu</td>
<td>bex-ung-eimu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>el-an-uzi</td>
<td>riš-en-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-an-eizi</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ung-uzi</td>
<td>riš-ong-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-ung-eizi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>el-an-itu</td>
<td>riš-en-iutu</td>
<td>bex-an-ietu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ung-itu</td>
<td>riš-ong-iutu</td>
<td>bex-ung-ietu</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
The present and past <b>subjunctive</b> are formed by infixing -<b>im</b>- (or -<b>id</b>- for -<b>ik</b> verbs) before the normal past and present endings.
<p>The subjunctive <b>intensive</b> is formed by infixing -<b>ug</b>- (or -<b>og</b>- for the -<b>m</b> verbs) before the past and present endings.
<p>The <b>future</b> subjunctive is formed by infixing -<b>an</b>- (or -<b>en</b>- for the -<b>m</b> verbs) before the past endings; for the intensive the suffixes are -<b>ung</b>-/-<b>ong</b>- (as with the indicative, these are the normal intensive suffix with an infixed -<b>n</b>-).
<h5><a name="negative">The negative mood</font></a></h5>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Present </b></td>
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Present intensive</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>-i</b></td>
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td><b>-i</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>el-ač-i</td>
<td>riš-ač-iu</td>
<td>bex-ač-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-anč-i</td>
<td>riš-anč-iu</td>
<td>bex-anč-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>el-ač-i</td>
<td>riš-ač-iu</td>
<td>bex-ač-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-anč-i</td>
<td>riš-anč-iu</td>
<td>bex-anč-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>el-ač-u</td>
<td>riš-ač-ei</td>
<td>bex-ač-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-anč-u</td>
<td>riš-anč-ei</td>
<td>bex-anč-ei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>el-ač-umu</td>
<td>riš-ač-oumu</td>
<td>bex-ač-eimu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-anč-umu</td>
<td>riš-anč-oumu</td>
<td>bex-anč-eimu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>el-ač-uzi</td>
<td>riš-ač-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-ač-eizi</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-anč-uzi</td>
<td>riš-anč-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-anč-eizi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>el-ač-itu</td>
<td>riš-ač-iutu</td>
<td>bex-ač-ietu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-anč-itu</td>
<td>riš-anč-iutu</td>
<td>bex-anč-ietu</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=4 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Past </b></td>
<td colspan=3 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>Past intensive</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td colspan=2><b>-i</b></td>
<td><b>-ik</b></td>
<td><b>-m</b></td>
<td><b>-i</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>el-ouč-i</td>
<td>riš-uč-iu</td>
<td>bex-ouč-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ounč-i</td>
<td>riš-unč-iu</td>
<td>bex-ounč-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>el-ouč-i</td>
<td>riš-uč-iu</td>
<td>bex-ouč-ie</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ounč-i</td>
<td>riš-unč-iu</td>
<td>bex-ounč-ie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>el-ouč-u</td>
<td>riš-uč-ei</td>
<td>bex-ouč-ei</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ounč-u</td>
<td>riš-unč-ei</td>
<td>bex-ounč-ei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>el-ouč-umu</td>
<td>riš-uč-oumu</td>
<td>bex-ouč-eimu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ounč-umu</td>
<td>riš-unč-oumu</td>
<td>bex-ounč-eimu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>el-ouč-uzi</td>
<td>riš-uč-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-ouč-eizi</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ounč-uzi</td>
<td>riš-unč-ouzi</td>
<td>bex-ounč-eizi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>el-ouč-itu</td>
<td>riš-uč-iutu</td>
<td>bex-ouč-ietu</td>
<td></td>
<td>el-ounč-itu</td>
<td>riš-unč-iutu</td>
<td>bex-ounč-ietu</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
The <b>negative</b> mood uses only the <i>past</i> endings. The infixes are -<b>ač</b>- for the present and -<b>ouč</b>- (or -<b>uč</b>- for -<b>m</b> verbs) for the past.
<p>The <b>intensive</b> infix adds an -<b>n</b>- before the final consonant: present -<b>anč</b>-, past -<b>ounč</b>-/-<b>unč</b>-.
<p>There are no future negative forms; use the present instead.
<h5><a name="izem">izem 'to be'</font></a></h5>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td rowspan=2></td>
<td colspan=2 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>indicative</b></td>
<td colspan=2 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>subjunctive</b></td>
<td colspan=2 bgcolor="#A0D0A0"><b>negative</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0">
<td>present</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>present</td>
<td>past</td>
<td>present</td>
<td>past</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1s</b></td>
<td>zoi</td>
<td>ziu</td>
<td>šu-oi</td>
<td>šu-yu</td>
<td>šač-iu</td>
<td>šouč-iu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2s</b></td>
<td>zewi</td>
<td>ziu</td>
<td>šu-iw</td>
<td>šu-yu</td>
<td>šač-iu</td>
<td>šouč-iu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3s</b></td>
<td>zi</td>
<td>zei</td>
<td>šu-i</td>
<td>šu-ei</td>
<td>šač-ei</td>
<td>šouč-ei</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>1p</b></td>
<td>izomu</td>
<td>ezoumu</td>
<td>šu-omu</td>
<td>šu-oumu</td>
<td>šač-oumu</td>
<td>šouč-oumu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>2p</b></td>
<td>izozi</td>
<td>ezouzi</td>
<td>šu-ozi</td>
<td>šu-ouzi</td>
<td>šač-ouzi</td>
<td>šouč-ouzi</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><b>3p</b></td>
<td>izutu</td>
<td>eziutu</td>
<td>šu-itu</td>
<td>šu-yutu</td>
<td>šač-iutu</td>
<td>šouč-iutu</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>The verb <i>izem</i> is partly irregular. <ul>
<li> In the <b>indicative</b>, the singular forms are missing the initial vowel; note also the entirely irregular 2s present <b>zewi</b>. The plural past forms begin with <b>ez</b>- instead of -<b>iz</b>.
<li> The <b>subjunctive</b> present and past are formed from a suppletive form <b>šu</b>- instead of the expected *<i>izim</i>-. The remaining subjunctive forms act as if the verb was <i>šuem</i>: future <i>šueniu..., </i>present intensive <i>šuogoi...</i>
<li> The <b>negative</b> forms act as if the verb were <i>šem</i>.</ul>
<h5><a name="Imperative">Imperative</font></a></h5>
For many verbs there is an abbreviated imperative, formed by removing the final consonant(s) of the root:
<blockquote><table>
<tr> <td><b>xamim</b> 'come'
<td>--<b>> xa! </b>
<tr> <td><b>ravem</b> 'go'
<td>→ <b>ra!</b>
<tr> <td><b>pidi</b> 'drink'
<td>→ <b>pi!</b>
<tr> <td><b>čejim</b> 'bring'
<td>→ <b>če!</b>
<tr> <td><b>nui</b> 'comfort'
<td>→ <b>nu!</b>
<tr> <td><b>še</b> 'do'
<td>→ <b>še!</b>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h5><a name="Unusual">Unusual roots</font></a></h5>
There are a few verbs with one-character roots. They are however quite regular, as witness the perfect indicative present forms:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>dem</b> 'give'</td>
<td>doi diw di <td>domu dozi ditu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mek</b> 'have'</td>
<td>meu miu me <td>moumu mouzi mutu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nem</b> 'be born' </td>
<td>noi niw ni <td>nomu nozi nitu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>še</b> 'do'</td>
<td>šeu šiu ši <td>šumu šuzi šutu</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Numbers">Numbers</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
The numbers are:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B0E0B0"><td></td>
<td>cardinal</td>
<td>ordinal</td>
<td>x10</td>
<td>symbol</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">1</td>
<td><b>ame</td>
<td>eimi</b></td>
<td></td>
<td><img src="wedei/1.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">2</td>
<td><b>vume</td>
<td>poudi</td>
<td>poudex</b></td>
<td><img src="wedei/2.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">3</td>
<td><b>dime</td>
<td>dimi</td>
<td>dindex</b></td>
<td><img src="wedei/3.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">4</td>
<td><b>baju</td>
<td>tidin</td>
<td>tidex</b></td>
<td><img src="wedei/4.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">5</td>
<td><b>penk</td>
<td>penkuri</td>
<td>pendex</b></td>
<td><img src="wedei/5.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">6</td>
<td><b>seče</td>
<td>sečuri</td>
<td>sedex</b></td>
<td><img src="wedei/6.gif"></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">7</td>
<td><b>šeis</td>
<td>šeisuri</td>
<td>šeidex</b></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">8</td>
<td><b>yugi</td>
<td>yuguri</td>
<td>yudex</b></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">9</td>
<td><b>nebi</td>
<td>neburi</td>
<td>nedex</b></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">10</td>
<td><b>dex</td>
<td>dexuri</b></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">100</td>
<td><b>sigadu</td>
<td>sigaduri</b></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B0E0B0">1000</td>
<td><b>ezer</td>
<td>ezerudi</b></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>The numbers are not declined; they simply precede their noun, which (except for 'one' of course) is expressed in the plural: <i>ame runei</i> 'one city', <i>vume werdui</i> 'two birds', <i>seče doumi</i> 'six houses'.
<p>The ordinals are regular adjectives: <i>dimi gume</i> 'the third man'; <i>eimo goro</i> 'the first temple', <i>dexurio deimo</i> 'on the tenth day'.
<p>Numbers from 11 to 19 are formed with the suffix -<b>mudex</b> ('with ten'): <i>amudex</i>, <i>vumudex</i>, ... <i>nebimudex</i>.
<p>Other two-digit numbers are formed with the name of the tens digit (simplified to end in <b>k</b>), plus <b>mu</b>, plus the name of the ones digit: 21 <i>poudekmuame</i>, 43 <i>tidekmudime</i>, 78 <i>šeidekmuyugi</i>, 95 <i>nedekmupenk</i>.
<p>Names of hundreds are formed much like the names of tens: 200 <i>pousigadu</i>, 300 <i>dinsigadu</i>, etc. To name three-digit numbers, two words are used: 537 <i>pensigadu dindekmušeis</i>.
<p>Finally, <i>ezer</i> '1000' always remains a separate word. Thousands are counted, then ones: 278,684 would be <i>pousigadu šeidekmuyugi ezer sedeksigadu yudekmubaju</i>.
<p><b>Ordinals</b> past 4 end with the adjectizier -<b>uri</b>; the suffix -<b>un</b> is used as a distributive: <i>bajun </i>'fourfold', <i>dexun </i>'tenfold', etc.
<h4><a name="Derivational">Derivational Morphology</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
<h5><a name="Nominalizations">Nominalizations</font></a></h5>
1. <i>Simple actions</i> nominalize with -<b>ou</b> (<i>n.</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>jibei</b> 'walk' → <b>jibeou</b> 'a walk'
<br><b>ruwik</b> 'desire' → <b>ruwou</b> 'desire'
</blockquote>
<p>2. A <i>state, process, or action</i> has the nominalization -<b>udo</b> (<i>n.</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>kouli </b>'gather' → <b>kouludo</b> 'harvest'
<br><b>izem</b> 'be' → <b>izudo</b> 'existence'
</blockquote>
<p>3. <i>Adjectives</i> commonly nominalize with -<b>is </b>(<i>m.; </i>stem -<b>ir</b>-):
<blockquote>
<b>rori</b> 'beautiful' → <b>roris</b> 'beauty'
<br><b>suli</b> 'young' → <b>sulis</b> 'youth'
</blockquote>
<p>4. The result of a <i>process</i> is formed with -<b>eč </b>(<i>m.; </i>stem -<b>eš</b>-):
<blockquote>
<b>pidi</b> 'sing' → <b>pideč</b> 'song'
<br><b>sunem</b> 'dream' → <b>suneč</b> 'dream'
<br><b>šebari</b> 'write' → <b>šebareč</b> 'scroll'
</blockquote>
<p>One instance of a <i>repetitive process</i> is named by -<b>us </b>(<i>m.; </i>stem -<b>uv</b>-):
<blockquote>
<b>šarem</b> 'empty' → <b>šarus</b> 'an emptying'
<br><b>gopim</b> 'beat' → <b>gopus</b> 'a beat'
<br><b>xalim</b> 'breathe' → <b>xalus</b> 'a breath'
</blockquote>
<p>The same suffix can be used to name an object with a particular quality:
<blockquote>
<b>dam </b>'flat' → <b>damus </b>'board'
<br><b>yuvu</b> 'tasty' → <b>yuvurus</b> 'delicacy'
</blockquote>
<p>5. <i>One who does</i>: -<b>irti</b> (<i>n.</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>tuči</b> 'dance' → <b>tučirti</b> 'dancer'
<br><b>wixem</b> 'look for' → <b>wixirti</b> 'seeker'
</blockquote>
<p><i>Master</i>: -<b>mex</b> (<i>m.</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>weime</b> 'ship' → <b>weimeimex</b> 'captain'
<br><b>sebareč</b> 'book' → <b>šebarešimex</b> 'chief scribe'
</blockquote>
<p>6. <i>Study</i>, thought (like -<i>ism</i>, -<i>ology</i>): -<b>xavou</b> 'study' (<i>n.</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>Bezou</b> → <b>Bezouxavou</b> 'religion of Bezu'
<br><b>nulsem</b> 'cure' → <b>nulsixavou</b> 'medicine'
</blockquote>
<p>7. <i>Follower</i> (like -ist): -<b>gume </b>'person' (<i>m.</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>Bezou</b> → <b>Bezougume</b> 'follower of Bezu'
<br><b>nive</b> 'king' → <b>nivegume</b> 'royalist'
</blockquote>
<p>8. <i>Inhabitant</i>, also used for certain occupations: -<b>ez</b> (<i>m.</i>; stem -<b>em</b>-):
<blockquote>
<b>Axuna</b> → <b>axunez </b>'inhabitant of Axuna'
<br><b>Jeiwor</b> → <b>jeiworez</b> 'Jeori'
<br><b>Kouraz</b> 'Skouras' → <b>kourazez</b> 'Skourene'
<p> <b>unkou</b> 'herd' → <b>unkez</b> 'herdsman'
<br><b>jadivati</b> 'form pots' → <b>jadivez</b> 'potter'
</blockquote>
<p>or occasionally -<b>evi</b> (<i>f.</i>), which is also used for professions associated with a location:
<blockquote>
<b>Worčal</b> 'Orčau' →
<br><b>worčalevi jen </b>'woods' → <b>jenevi</b> 'woodsman'
</blockquote>
<p>For some countries there is an independent root giving the name of the inhabitant: e.g. <b>Čurou</b> 'Tžuro', <b>Wedeï</b> 'Wede:i', <b>Sabi</b> 'Sainor'.
<p>9. A <i>person with a quality: </i>-<b>to</b> (<i>n.</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>mal</b> 'bald' → <b>malto</b> 'bald man'
<br><b>nulači</b> 'sick' → <b>nulačito</b> 'patient'
</blockquote>
<p>10. <i>Language</i>: -<b>šin </b>(<i>m.), </i>a modification of <i>šun</i> 'language':
<blockquote>
<b>Axunai → Axunašin</b>
<br><b>Wedeï → Wedešin</b>
</blockquote>
<p>11. A <i>collection</i> of things is named with -<b>ax</b> (borrowed from Wede:i):
<blockquote>
<b>berivu</b> 'brother' → <b>berivax</b> 'brotherhood, league'
<br><b>menurem</b> 'wear' → <b>menurax</b> 'clothing'
<br><b>šuč</b> 'bone' → <b>šučax</b> 'skeleton'
</blockquote>
<p>12. <i>Augmentative</i> suffix -<b>i</b> (<i>n.</i>). This suffix always creates a separate syllable, not a diphthong.
<blockquote>
<b>nive</b> 'king' → <b>niveï</b> 'emperor'
<br><b>Axuna</b> → <b>Axunai</b>
<br><b>douz </b>'house' → <b>douzi</b> 'court'
</blockquote>
<p>13. The <i>diminutive</i> is formed by reduplicating the first syllable, usually accompanied by raising of <b>a</b> to <b>e</b>, <b>e</b> and <b>ei</b> to <b>i</b>, <b>o</b> and <b>ou</b> to <b>u</b>. It's used to convey affection or intimacy rather than size per se.
<blockquote>
<b>dič</b> 'baby' → <b>didi</b> 'snookums'
<br><b>savu</b> 'sister' → <b>sese</b> 'Sis'
<br><b>tibel</b> 'horse' → <b>titi</b> 'horsie'
</blockquote>
<p>The infix -<b>ik</b>- serves as a lexical diminutive; it's used for things that are small or remote. It also names baby animals when there is not a separate word.
<blockquote>
<b>savu</b> 'sister' → <b>saviku</b> 'female cousin
<br><b>tibel</b> 'horse' → <b>tibelik</b> 'pony'
</blockquote>
<p>14. <i>Peoples</i> and nations can be named using the Wede:i suffix <b>(n)eli</b> (<i>n.</i>):
<blockquote>
<b>Sabi</b> 'Sainor' → <b>Sabineli</b> 'Sainel'
<br><b>kazin</b> 'Caďinorian' → <b>Kazineli </b>'Caďinorian empire'
</blockquote>
<p>This would be viewed as somewhat literary; more colloquially, one would say <b>roz Sabiš</b> 'the land of the Sabi'.
<h5><a name="Adjectivizations">Adjectivizations</font></a></h5>
1. Adjectivization -<b>uri</b> (adapted from Wede:i):
<blockquote>
<b>gume</b> 'person' → <b>gumuri</b> 'human'
<br><b>mivu</b> 'mother' → <b>mivuri</b> 'maternal'
<br><b>nive</b> 'king' → <b>nivuri</b> 'royal'
</blockquote>
<p>The same suffix serves to create a present participle from a verb:
<blockquote>
<b>keixi</b> 'grow' → <b>keixuri</b> 'growing'
<br><b>sunem</b> 'dream' → <b>sunuri</b> 'dreaming'
</blockquote>
<p?2. A <i>passive past participle</i> can be formed with the suffix -<b>uvi</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>runje</b> 'bend' → <b>runjuvi</b> 'bent'
<br><b>kapi</b> 'worship' → <b>kapuvi</b> 'worshipped'
</blockquote>
<p>3. An <i>active past participle</i> (also borrowed from Wede:i) can be formed with -<b>okun</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>anči</b> 'wake' → <b>ančokun</b> 'awake'
<br><b>sagi</b> 'take hold of' → <b>sagokun</b> 'having taken', thus, 'possessing'
</blockquote>
<p>4. <i>Personal qualities</i> are often adjectivized with -<b>meli</b> '-hearted':
<blockquote>
<b>kuim</b> 'argue' → <b>kumeli</b> 'argumentative'
<br><b>jixi</b> 'weak' → <b>jiximeli</b> 'weak in spirit'
<br><b>ras</b> 'justice' → <b>ravimeli</b> 'justice-loving'
<br><b>mez </b>'son' → <b>medimeli </b>'properly filial'
</blockquote>
<p>5. An adjective meaning 'with the quality of X' is formed by adding -<b>un</b> (also from Wede:i):
<blockquote>
<b>nuve</b> 'cat' → <b>nuvun</b> 'like a cat'
<br><b>zimik</b> 'maiden' → <b>zimikun</b> 'maidenly'
<br><b>ras</b> 'justice' → <b>rasun</b> 'just'
</blockquote>
<p>Some very old words have -<b>o(r)</b> instead; this is a proto-Eastern suffix, on the model of <b>evo</b> 'blue'.
<blockquote>
<b>reiz</b> 'line' → <b>reizo</b> 'long'
<br><b>nixi</b> 'snow' → <b>nixo</b> 'white'
</blockquote>
<p>6. -<i>ist</i> (adjective): -<b>xei</b>
<blockquote>
<b>Meša</b> → <b>Mešaxei</b> 'relating to the worship of Meša'
</blockquote>
<p>7. Adjectival form of a <i>toponym</i>: -(<b>a</b>)<b>ri</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Axuna</b> → <b>axunari </b>'relating to Axuna'
<br><b>Jeiwor</b> → <b>jeiwori</b> 'Jeori'
<br><b>Kouraz</b> 'Skouras' → <b>kourazari</b> 'Skourene'
</blockquote>
<p>8. The sense of a word can be <i>weakened</i> using the suffix -<b>ik</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>rujidi</b> 'red' → <b>rujidik</b> 'reddish'
<br><b>beivi</b> 'short' → <b>beivik</b> 'not so short'
</blockquote>
<p>9. The suffix -<b>ači</b> forms a <i>negative</i>:
<blockquote>
<b>reilim</b> 'see' → <b>reilači</b> 'invisible'
<br><b>rasun</b> 'just' → <b>rasunači</b> 'unjust'
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="Verbalizations">Verbalizations</font></a></h5>
1. A noun can be turned into a verb with -<b>i</b>; this is an old process no longer productive.
<blockquote>
<b>tuč</b> 'dance' → <b>tuči</b> 'dance'
<br><b>kome</b> 'home' → <b>komi </b>'live'
</blockquote>
<p>2. A noun is turned into the <i>process</i> which produces it by adding -<b>vati</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>reme</b> 'milk' → <b>remevati</b> 'milk (an animal)'
<br><b>jadi</b> 'pot' → <b>jadivati</b> 'shape (a pot)'
</blockquote>
<p>The same suffix can be used to turn adjective X into a <i>causative</i> verb 'to make something X':
<blockquote>
<b>gelmi</b> 'straight' → <b>gelmivati</b> 'straighten'
<br><b>beivi</b> 'short' → <b>beivivati</b> 'shorten'
</blockquote>
<p>3. Similarly, an action consisting of the <i>use</i> of an object is formed by adding -(<b>u</b>)<b>šik</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>rauni</b> 'tongue' → <b>raunišik</b> 'verbally abuse'
<br><b>sol</b> 'salt' → <b>solušik</b> 'add salt to'
</blockquote>
<p>4. As with adjectives, the sense of a verb can be <i>weakened</i> with -<b>ik-</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>nemurem</b> 'sleep' → <b>nemurikem</b> 'sleep fitfully'
<br><b>rizi</b> 'smile' → <b>riziki</b> 'smile slightly'
</blockquote>
<p>5. Similarly, reduplicating the first syllable of a verb heightens or <i>intensifies</i> its meaning (this is probably borrowed from Wede:i):
<blockquote>
<b>pidi</b> 'drink' → <b>pipidi</b> 'get drunk'
<br><b>kuim</b> 'argue' → <b>kuxuim</b> 'dispute vociferously'
<br><b>šagi</b> 'lack' → <b>šašagi</b> 'need'
</blockquote>
<p>6. Forms with -<b>dem</b> (really compounds with 'give') indicate the <i>bestowal</i> of an object:
<blockquote>
<b>nuz</b> 'name' → <b>numidem</b> 'give a name to'
<br><b>kie</b> 'body' → <b>kiedem</b> 'embody, create'
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Syntax">Syntax</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h3>
The bulk of this section will be a discussion of transformations—the formation of complex clauses out of simple ones, and the systematic variation of syntactic forms.
<p>First, however, I'll cover simple sentences as a whole and their constituents—noun phrases, verbs, prepositional phrases, conjunctions.
<h4><a name="Sentence">Sentence word order</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
The unmarked order is <font color="green">S</font><font color="blue">O</font>V (we'll discuss variations under <i>Transformations</i> below).
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Ir mivu</font> <font color="blue">rama</font> kejei. </b>
<br><font size=2>my mother frog-ACC eat-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i><font color="green">My mother</font> ate a <font color="blue">frog</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p><b>Adverbs</b> normally precede the verb, though they can also appear at the beginning of the sentence.
<blockquote>
<b>Rama <font color="green">xidiwa</font> jexei.</b>
<br><font size=2>frog-ACC quickly kill-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>She killed the frog quickly.</i>
</blockquote>
<p><b>Minor constituents</b> such as locatives and prepositional phrases (including dative expressions) generally appear after the subject.
<blockquote>
<b>Račazim <u>daxo</u> komi!</b>
<br><font size=2>whore-ACC palace-LOC live-3s</font>
<br><i>The whore lives inside the palace!</i>
<p><b>Wenke <u>ečeo</u> <u>tek rud</u> pidi.</b>
<br><font size=2>person summer-LOC without ice-ACC drink-3s</font>
<br><i>In the summer people drink without ice.</i>
<p><b>Nive <u>omudečuviki en geivem</u> ezer tibeli dei.</b>
<br><font size=2>king puzzled-DIM to noble-ACC 1000 horses give-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>The king gave the somewhat puzzled noble a thousand horses.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>They can be moved after the verb, however, for an emphatic or contrastive effect.
<blockquote>
<b>Šuvičirti <u>runu</u> beludo wimixučei peliwa <u>jeno</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>seeker city-LOC enlightenment find-3s-NEG contrariwise forest-LOC</font>
<br><i>The seeker will not find enlightenment in the city, but in the forest.</i>
</blockquote>
<p><b>Adjectives</b> follow their modifying adverbs (<b>palinma emourun</b> 'very wise') or complements (<b>kuimei naya šemelači</b> 'unable to fight').
<h4><a name="NP">Noun phrases</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
<h5><a name="NP">NP word order</font></a></h5>
Axunašin generally follows modifier/modified order, so the unmarked position of the noun is at the end of the noun phrase. The noun thus follows--<ul>
<li> adjectives: <b>emourunou guetu </b>'a wise duck'
<li> quantifiers: <b>muxui guetui </b>'many ducks'
<li> numbers: <b>dime guetui </b>'three ducks'
<li> genitives: <b>ir mediš guetu </b>'my son's duck'
<li> demonstratives: <b>ti guetu </b>'this duck'
<li> prepositional phrases: <b>nevi</b> <b>eriw guetu </b>'the duck in the tree'
<li> relative clauses: <b>tíbelax makei naya guetu</b> 'the duck which defeated an army'</ul>
One may equally put adjectives, numbers, genitives, and quantifiers after the noun. This position can be said to emphasize the modifier: <b>guetu emourunou </b>'a duck that's wise', <b>guetui dime </b>'a duck threesome', <b>guetu ir mediš </b>'the duck my son has', <b>guetui muxui</b> '<i>many</i> ducks'.
<p>The remaining clauses are less forgiving. Demonstratives and relative clauses must precede the noun. Prepositional phrases can follow the noun, but the effect is jarring, and English speakers will find it best to avoid it. Conjunctions offer an exception to these rules: the conjoints may be moved after the noun, or even outside the noun phrase entirely:
<blockquote>
<b><u>tek čenka mata juxum</u> kuirti → <u>tek čenka</u> kuirti <u>mata juxum</u></b>
<br><font size=2>without sword-ACC or spear-ACC fighter → without sword fighter or spear</font>
<br><i>a fighter without sword or spear </i>
<p><b><u>Pejimeli zi li ras čeji </u>naya gume tuč nive mabe.</b>
<br><font size=2>faithful is and justice brings subord man that-one king loves →</font>
<br><b><u>Pejimeli zi</u> naya gume tuč nive mabe <u>li ras čeji</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>faithful is subord man that-one king loves and justice brings </font>
<br><i>The king loves a man who is faithful and who executes justice</i>
</blockquote>
<p><b><i>Lexicalized phrases</b></i> often move a modifier to the end: <b>mureč naniei </b>'the plane of the gods'. Where we tend to distinguish compounds from modifiers by intonation (the Whíte Hòuse vs. a whíte hóuse; a bláckbìrd vs. a bláck bírd), Axunašin uses word order:
<blockquote>
<b>Dax Nixo</b> 'White Palace' vs. <b>nixo dax</b> 'white palace'
<br> <b>werdu xurenou</b> 'blackbird' vs. <b>xurenou werdu</b> 'black bird'.
</blockquote>
<p><b><i>Titles</b></i>, including kinship and geographical terms, follow the noun: <b>Xuruwaruz niveï</b> 'the emperor Xuruwaruz'; <b>Jadijouz šel</b> 'Uncle Butthead', <b>Yedeveiz reina</b> 'the Ideis river'.
<p>Noun phrases can move around the sentence, as we'll see below, but they can't be broken up, as Caďinor and Cuêzi freely do.
<h5><a name="Cases:">Cases: 'Nominative' and 'accusative'</font></a></h5>
The role of the cases changes over time. <ul>
<li> In the earliest records, Axunašin is a standard <b>nominative/accusative</b> language.
<li> In the classical language, these are reinterpreted as <b>dominant/subordinate</b>. (The Axunašin names, in fact, are <b>jugirti </b>'dominant' and <b>juguvi </b>'dominated'.)
<li> In later times the roles become permanent attributes of the nouns—producing a sort of <b>status-linked gender system</b>.</ul>
The motor of the progression seems to have been the feeling that there was something shameful or unmanly about being in the accusative—being acted upon rather than acting. We see writers convoluting their syntax to keep gods and kings and nobles active: one says <i>The king listened to the messenger </i>rather than <i>The messenger reported to the king; </i>or <i>The god considered my prayer </i>rather than <i>I prayed to the god</i>.
<p>(In this section, nominatives are shown in <font color="blue">blue</font>, accusatives in <font color="green">green</font>.)
<p>In the classical system, the cases marked relative dominance: the higher-status noun used the 'nominative', the lower-status the 'accusative'. As a simple example:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Nive</font> <font color="green">geivem</font> lousei li <font color="green">geivem</font> xamei.</b>
<br><font size=2>king-NOM noble-ACC summoned and noble-ACC came.</font>
<br><i>The king summoned the noble, and the noble came.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The first part of the sentence looks like a standard nominative-accusative language; but the second part doesn't fit in: <b>geivez</b><i> </i>'noble' is the subject, but is still in the accusative. In fact, in both clauses the accusative signals the lower rank of the noble <i>vis-à-vis</i> the king; compare another sentence with the same formal structure:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Geivez</font> toiš <font color="green">jira</font> lousei li <font color="green">jira</font> xamei.</b>
<br><font size=2>noble-NOM his wife-ACC summoned and wife-ACC came.</font>
<br><i>The noble summoned his wife, and the wife came.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>There was still a preference to use high-status nouns as subjects, but this was not a rule:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Geivem</font> <font color="blue">nive</font> jurume. <font color="green">Jira</font> <font color="blue">geivez</font> ujačei.</b>
<br><font size=2>noble-ACC king-NOM advises. wife-ACC noble-NOM not-hears</font>
<br><i>The noble advises the king. The wife ignores the noble.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The same status rule was used after prepositions:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Nive</font> en <font color="green">geivem</font> ujei li <font color="green">geivem</font> en <font color="blue">nive</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>king-NOM to noble-ACC listened and noble-ACC to king-NOM.</font>
<br><i>The king listened to the noble, and the noble listened to the king.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>In a narrative, a particular referent could switch cases whenever the scene changed: e.g. the noble warrants the accusative while he's in the king's presence, but reverts to the nominative when he leaves the palace.
<p>The subordinate form primarily expresses a <i>relative</i> level in the hierarchy; accordingly, it's not needed when there's only one noun phrase—even if another is implied with a pronoun or a verbal ending:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Geivez</font> id kale. <font color="blue">Geivez</font> kaleu.</b>
<br><font size=2>noble-NOM me pleases. noble-NOM I-please.</font>
<br><i>I like the noble. The noble likes me.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="hierarchy">The hierarchy</font></a></h5>
Who was subordinate to what? The rules varied over time and by region, but in the imperial court during the golden age, they amounted to the following:<ul>
<li> For <b>humans</b>, the social hierarchy was followed. Royalty outranked the nobility, which outranked (non-noble) clerics, bureaucrats, and engineers, who outranked the peasants, who outranked slaves and criminals. Distinctions within these classes were respected as well.
<ul>
<li>Within the same class, males outranked females, who outranked <i>ewemi </i>(the middle sex), but a woman or <i>ewez </i>outranked adult males from a lower class.
<li>Adults outrank children; but a child outranks an adult from a lower class.
<li>A person acting as an agent for another—a messenger, an ambassador, a steward—was treated as equivalent to his master, but only in contexts relating to his official position.
<li>Foreigners ranked below Axunemi of the same class and gender. E.g. an Axunemi noble outranks a foreign nobleman, but he outranks an Axunemi noble <i>ewez</i>, or an Axunemi cleric.</ul><p>
<li> <b>Gods</b> outranked humans. Meša outranked the other gods; a city's patron god outranked the others besides Meša. (Grammarians debated, in fact, whether the word <b>Meša</b> even had an accusative form—a doubly moot question, since masculine nouns in -<b>a</b> have identical nominative and accusative forms!)<p>
<li> By convention all <b>ilii</b> were treated as nobles, all elcari as engineers, and all ktuvoks, icëlani, and múrtani as slaves. <p>
<li> Humans outranked all <b>animals</b> except horses—but considered as an avatar of a god, an animal would be referred to using dominant forms. It was considered pious for a worshippers of a god to refer to their god's totem animal with dominant forms.<p>
<li> Everyday <b>objects</b>, parts of the body, horses, and cities and institutions were treated as equivalent to their owners or masters. The noble's foot was a <b><font color="blue">neje</font></b> (nom.) at home, a <b><font color="green">neja</font></b> (acc.) at the king's court. Cities being equivalent to their rulers and temples to their gods, they were almost never referred to using subordinate forms.
<p>Self-action is a special case; a person's own possessions are referred to using the accusative. If the noble acts on his own foot, it's a <b><font color="green">neja</font></b>.
<li> Abstractions, actions, and times did not really fit into the hierarchy. It was customary to simply use the nominative for these. </ul>
<h5><a name="Later">Later developments</font></a></h5>
Even in the classical period there was a certain amount of what we might call tactical subordination: one might refer to a peer as a superior out of politeness. This intensified in later times; it became conventional to refer to the emperor always as <b><font color="blue">niveï</font></b>, never <b><font color="green">niveïm</font></b>, even if the context contained gods. Likewise it became polite to use only <b><font color="blue">geivez</font></b> for a noble.
<p>The end result was that most words stabilized into either dominant or subordinate form: e.g. <b><font color="blue">niveï, imi, geivez, goro</font></b> 'emperor, prince, noble, temple' were simply 'dominant words', no longer possessing a subordinate form; <b><font color="green">wedeïm, xuda, gonab, gudum</font></b> 'slave, pig, thief, rat' were permanently subordinate, no longer possessing a dominant form. This single form, whatever its original case, is the etymon for the Xurnese and Ṭeôši derivatives.
<p>After the imperial period more and more words were sorted into permanent classes—e.g. <b><font color="blue">meidez, jire</font></b> 'farmer, wife' as dominant, <b><font color="green">rama, jad</font></b> 'frog, buttocks' as subordinate. Others retained two forms, but the subordinate form was increasingly seen as a despective: e.g. <b><font color="blue">monzi</font></b> 'girl' vs. <b><font color="green">monzim</font></b> 'wicked girl, slut'; <b><font color="blue">podei</font></b> 'dog' vs. <b><font color="green">podie</font></b> 'cur'; <b><font color="blue">lič</font></b> 'face' vs. <b><font color="green">liš</font></b> 'mug, snout'. A good deal of this variation was lost on the way to the daughter languages, but often the doublet survived.
<h5><a name="Annotated">Annotated example</font></a></h5>
Here's an anecdote with the case assignments highlighted and explained, showing how the classical system worked.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Nive</font> toiš <font color="green">jurumirtim</font> en <font color="green">geivem</font> čensei.</b>
<br><font size=2>king-NOM his advisor-ACC to noble-ACC sent.</font>
<br><i>The king sent his advisor to a noble.</i>
<p>The king outranks both officials.
<p><b><font color="blue">Jurumirti</font> en geivemiš <font color="green">doum</font> ravei li en tuč bugei tinaya rir <font color="green">ulirideši</font> jinari šuitu? <font color="blue">Nive</font> xuldimiw naya ruwidiu? </b>
<br><font size=2>priest-NOM to lord-GEN house-ACC went and to that-one said that> your taxes-ACC where are? king-NOM you-cheat-SUBJ <that you-wish-SUBJ </font>
<br><i>The advisor went to the noble's house and asked him, "Where are your taxes? Do you wish to cheat the king?"</i>
<p>A new scene, so roles are reassessed. The advisor, as the king's representative, outranks the noble. The noble's attributes (house, taxes) take his rank.
<p><b>Ešenšei <font color="green">geivem</font> tinaya <font color="green">loujie</font> mači.</b>
<br><font size=2>replied noble-ACC that> money-ACC I-have-not. </font>
<br><i>The noble replied, "I have no money."</i>
<p>The noble refers to his own possessions using the subordinate forms.
<p><b><font color="blue">Koni tíbeli</font> <font color="green">wedewim</font> mimiw enke en <font color="blue">nive</font> čenseviu?</b>
<br><font size=2>jewels-NOM horses-NOM and slaves-ACC you-have-not-SUBJ for to king-NOM you-send-FUT</font>
<br><i>"You have no jewels, horses, or slaves to send to the king?"</i>
<p>This is direct speech, and the advisor is speaking neutrally, that is, with no desire to underline his own importance. He therefore refers to the noble's possessions as befitting a noble's high rank—except for slaves, who being humans have their own rank, a very low one.
<p><b>Bugei <font color="blue">geivez</font> tinaya <font color="green">rorie noumuvačie nega</font> meu. </b>
<br><font size=2>noble said that> beautiful unmarried daughter-ACC I-have.</font>
<br><i>The noble said, "I have a beautiful unmarried daughter."</i>
<p>The noble outranks his own daughter.
<p><b><font color="blue">Nive</font> toe saganei enke <font color="green">duzum</font> mata <font color="blue">jire</font> izevei, tumiwa ir sorači <font color="green">beriš</font> čenseniu.</b>
<br><font size=2>king-NOM her seize-FUT-SUBJ for servant-ACC or wife-NOM will-be rather my left arm-ACC I-send-FUT-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>"Let the king take her to be his servant or his bride—though I would sooner part with my own left arm."</i>
<p>The noble suggests two roles for his daughter: as a servant she is the king's subordinate; as his wife she would be his equal. (Technically a man outranks his wife; but this isn't reflected grammatically unless they are the only people involved in the context.)
<p><b><font color="blue">Geivez</font> <font color="green">monzie</font> lousei.</b>
<br><font size=2>noble-NOM girl-ACC summoned</font>
<br><i>The noble summoned the girl.</i>
<p>Momentarily we are concerned only with the noble and his daughter; he therefore takes the dominant form, she the subordinate.
<p><b>To <font color="green">monzim</font> reilei naya <font color="blue">jurumirti</font> bugei tinaya tu <font color="green">liš</font> to muriwa, rir <font color="green">beriš</font> mide naya mutuči <font color="blue">nive</font> eimiruwivu.</b>
<br><font size=2>he girl-ACC saw that advisor said that> that face-ACC she having-ADV, your arm-ACC have-SUBJ <that also king will-prefer</font>
<br><i>Seeing the girl, the advisor said, "With a face like that, the king would likewise prefer that you send him your left arm."</i>
<p>With the king back in the context, he and his representative are dominant and everything else is subordinate.
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="Oblique">Oblique cases</font></a></h5>
The <b><i>genitive</b></i> case, as its name implies, is usually used for:<ul>
<li> ownership (<b>nivei tizi</b> 'the king's throne')
<li> composition (<b>gulei tis</b> 'a wooden chair'). </ul>
The <b><i>locative</b></i> case is used for:<ul>
<li> location (<b>xivazo</b>'in the ocean'; <b>runu</b> 'in the city')
<li> placement in time (<b>noxo</b> 'at night'; <b>xuriwo</b> 'in the winter')
<li> adjectivization (<b>nuvu xul</b>, 'feline evil')
<li> instrumentals (<b>tevo</b> 'with a knife'; <b>toru </b>'with fire') </ul>
<h5><a name="Agreement">Agreement</font></a></h5>
Adjectives must agree in number, gender, and case with the nouns they modify.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>emourun šel</b></td>
<td>s. m. nom.</td>
<td><i>a wise uncle</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>welou čenkirti</b></td>
<td>s. n. nom.</td>
<td><i>an old soldier</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>zenmeli gime</b></td>
<td>s. f. nom. </td>
<td><i>an intelligent girl</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>šerini buguvmiši</b></td>
<td>pl. m. nom.</td>
<td><i>lovely poems</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>rorui guetui</b></td>
<td>pl. n. nom.</td>
<td><i>beautiful ducks</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ezičei čenkei</b></td>
<td>pl. f. nom.</td>
<td><i>mighty swords</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>yuvuriš joupiš</b></td>
<td>s. m. gen.</td>
<td><i>the tasty fruit's</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>buruniei endei</b></td>
<td>pl. f. gen.</td>
<td><i>the true path's</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>rorum guetum</b></td>
<td>s. n. acc.</td>
<td><i>(I see) the beautiful duck</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>xureneim nuveim</b></td>
<td>pl. f. acc.</td>
<td><i>(I see) the black cats</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>reizoro jeno</b></td>
<td>s. m. loc.</td>
<td><i>in the deep woods</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>gourtunu runu</b></td>
<td>s. f. loc.</td>
<td><i>at the coastal city</i></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
This remains true when the nominative/accusative distinction becomes a dominant/subordinate one.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Ubimelači nive</font> toiš <font color="green">pejimeluim jurumirtuim</font> lousei.</b>
<br><font size=2>unhappy-S-F-NOM king-NOM loyal-PL-N-ACC nobles-ACC summoned </font>
<br><i>The unhappy king summoned his loyal advisors.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Simple">Simple verbs</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
This section will discuss simple sentences with a single verb. More complex sentence types will be discussed later.
<h5><a name="Tense">Tense</font></a></h5>
There are three morphological tenses in Axunašin—past, present, future—which generally operate with no surprises.
<blockquote>
<b>Peivideimo šugema <u>pidie</u>.</b> <i>Yesterday I drank beer.</i>
<br><b>Eidemu šugema <u>pideu</u>.</b> <i>Today I'm drinking beer.</i>
<br><b>Dusodeimo šugema <u>pidivie</u>.</b> <i>Tomorrow I will drink beer.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>To the Axunemi, the primary classification of verbs was into <b>amendexi</b> 'simple' verbs—the present and past indicative—and <b>palindexi</b> 'additive' verbs formed by infixation—that is, everything else. Accordingly, the future is a more marked form, not entirely a peer of the past and present. There is a tendency to mark it only once in conjoints (<b>Pidivie li jereu</b> 'I will drink and be merry') and to use the simple present when expressing a mere intention, especially using verbs of motion (<b>En Weinex ravoi </b>'I'm going to Weinex').
<h5><a name="intensive">The intensive</font></a></h5>
The intensive (<b>šimun</b><i>)</i> doesn't correspond directly to any category of European grammar; its usage will therefore seem a bit difficult or chaotic to most English speakers.
<p>The root meaning is an intensive—it insists that the action really happened.
<blockquote>
<b>Mu monzi eimireiliu.</b> <i>I met a girl.</i>
<br><b>Mu monzi <u>eimireilejiu</u>.</b> <i>I really met a girl.</i>
<br><b>Jeteu.</b> <i>I'm laughing.</i>
<br><b><u>Jetijeu</u>.</b> <i>I'm laughing my ass off.</i>
<br><b>Tibelax Jeiwor <u>makenjei</u>.</b> <i>The army will surely defeat Jeor.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>It's often used to contradict a negative statement:
<blockquote>
<b>Ej kalaču.</b> <i>You're not having a good time.</i>
<br><b>Id <u>kalijeu</u>!</b> <i>No, I <u>am</u> enjoying myself!</i>
</blockquote>
<p>An obvious extension is to a perfective, emphasizing that the action is or will be completed.
<blockquote>
<b>Uliax <u>iturijie</u>.</b> <i>I read all the classics.</i>
<br><b>Ra. Ti sakana <u>kejenjiu</u>.</b> <i>Go away. I'm eating the whole fish myself.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>This doesn't mean that the unmarked form is imperfective—<b>iturie</b> can also mean 'I read (and finished)'.
<p>The unmarked and intensive tenses may be used contrastively, to show that the second action was done more successfully or more zealously:
<blockquote>
<b>Pidiu peli Jerex <u>pidiji</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>you-drink but Jerex drinks-INT</font>
<br><i>You drink, but Jerex drinks like a fish.</i>
<p><b>Kouraz kui, Axunai <u>kueji</u>.</b>
<br><i>Skouras fights, but Axunai fights to the finish. (An Axunemi saying.)</i>
</blockquote>
<p>With absolutes (statements about 'all' or 'every' bit of something), the intensive emphasizes the systematic or exhaustive nature of the action.
<blockquote>
<b>Rišieriz esi reileš čalkaro <u>kejejei</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>Rišieriz every thing-ACC table-LOC eat-3s-PAST-INT</font>
<br><i>Rišieriz ate every damn thing on the table.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Another extension is into time: the intensive can imply that an action is frequent or habitual, or to refer to someone doing something over and over.
<blockquote>
<b>Esidemu <u>pidijiu</u>.</b> <i>You're always drinking.</i>
<br><b>Seliš podie <u>gupiju</u>.</b>
<i>Uncle's dog barked and barked.</i>
<br><b>Kourazemi teim <u>xuldejitu</u>.</b>
<i>The Skourenes constantly defraud us.</i>
<p><b>Ečeo en eidi <u>komikinjeimu</u>. </b>
<br><font size=2>summer-LOC to lake visit-1p-FUT-INT</font>
<br><i>In the summer we will often be at the lake.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="subjunctive">The subjunctive</font></a></h5>
The subjunctive is used for actions that are uncertain, potential, or counterfactual.
<blockquote>
<b>Rir eimi nijuvez en jeiworemi <u>bugimi</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>your first minister to Jeori speak-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Your chief minister may be speaking to the Jeori. </i>
<p><b>Tu noxu <u>tagimi</u>!</b>
<br><i>Would that this night would be over!</i>
<p><b>Palin xidiwa <u>xamimouzi</u>!</b>
<br><font size=2>more quickly came-2p-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>If only you had arrived more speedily.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>It is also used with <b>enke</b> 'for the purpose of':
<blockquote>
<b>Gumei ras <u>šedimiutu</u> naya enke xamei.</b>
<br><font size=2>men justice experienced-SUBJ <that for came</font>
<br><i>He came, that men might have justice.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Referring to indefinite expressions, the subjunctive implies that the object may not exist:
<blockquote>
<b>Nive burunmelim jurumirtim <u>wiximi</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>king honest counselor-ACC seek-3s-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>The king is seeking an honest counselor (there may be none).</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Other uses will be discussed below.
<h5><a name="negative">The negative</font></a></h5>
The <b>negative</b> mood is used, naturally enough, to negate a sentence.
<blockquote>
<b>Xuči guma <u>bugačie.</u></b>
<br><font size=2>dead man speak-1s-NEG</font>
<br><i>I did not speak to the dead man.</i>
<p><b>Evonano ečeo <u>komikačeimu</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>Van-LOC summer-LOC spend-1p-NEG</font>
<br><i>We are not spending the summer at Van.</i>
<p><b>Géiveme <u>kalanči</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>lady please-3s-NEG-INT</font>
<br><i>The Lady is not enjoying herself at all.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>It can take the place of the indicative or the subjunctive; or to put it another way, one must rely on context to tell if a sentence is denying a real action or wishing for a non-action.
<blockquote>
<b>Gi ušun tip šubouču.</b>
<br><font size=2>boy golden ring vomit-3s-PAST-NEG</font>
<br><i>The boy did not vomit up the gold ring. <br>OR: The boy may not have vomited up the gold ring. <br>OR: If only the boy had not vomited up the gold ring.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>There are no future negative tenses. The present is used instead; if necessary, an adverb of time specifies the time referred to.
<blockquote>
<b>Nijuvez mu teim dusodeimo <u>kejejačei.</u></b>
<br><font size=2>minister with us tomorrow dine-3s-NEG</font>
<br><i>The minister will not be (lit. is not) dining with us tomorrow.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="npron">Negative pronouns</font></a></h5>
<b>Dowo</b> 'not' and <b>dowogu</b> 'nothing, nobody' must be used with the negative:
<blockquote>
<b>Dowogu ti runiku palinma <u>šigačei</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>nobody this city-DIM-LOC very-much work-3s-NEG</font>
<br><i>Nobody works hard in this burg.</i>
<p><b>Boume Jeiworo <u>bugoučei</u> peli Turalo.</b>
<br><font size=2>cow Jeiwor-LOC talk-1s-PAST-NEG but Curau-LOC</font>
<br><i>The cow spoke in Curau, not in Jeor.</i>
<p><b>Dowogu dul ir boumeim <u>bugačietu</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>nobody among my cows-ACC talk-3p-NEG</font>
<br><i>None of my cows talk. </i>
<p><b>Dowo toiš liš monzi <u>kalaču</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>not his face-ACC maiden please-3s-NEG</font>
<br><i>It's not his face the girl likes.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>There are no words for 'nowhere' or 'never'; instead the negative is used with their positive counterparts:
<blockquote>
<b>Duxirti esinari <u>wimixunčiu</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>teacher everywhere found-1s-PAST-NEG-INT</font>
<br><i>Lit., Everywhere, I absolutely didn't find the teacher.
<br>The teacher is nowhere to be found.</i>
<p><b>Esidemu ej <u>orpuači</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>always you-ACC leave-1s-NEG</font>
<br><i>Lit., I am not leaving you always.
<br>I'll never leave you.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="imper">The imperative</font></a></h5>
Most verbs do not have a morphological imperative. Instead, the future indicative is used to give orders to servants, slaves, children, apprentices, soldiers, and other clear inferiors; the present subjunctive is used when addressing peers and superiors.
<blockquote>
<b>Bideš <u>wexivie</u>. </b>
<br><font size=2>wine-ACC remove-2s-FUT</font>
<br><i>Remove the wine.</i>
<p><b>Mezik, <u>terivi</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>son-DIM-ACC shut-up-2s-FUT</font>
<br><i>Child, shut up.</i>
<p><b>Rir baymisak <u>petimiw</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>your poem sing-2s-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Would you sing us your poem?</i>
<p><b>Pivui, ti piluvik numišebari naya <u>kalide</u>. </b>
<br><font size=2>father-AUG this document-ACC sign-2s <that please-3s-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Sire, may it please you to sign this document.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Where there is a morphological imperative, it's equivalent to the future indicative, and thus suitable only for inferiors: <b>Bideš če! </b><i>'Bring the wine!'</i>
<p>Negative orders use the negative mood, of course. Since there is no negative future or negative subjunctive, the negative present is used for everyone.
<blockquote>
<b>Edelmi, <u>rijačie</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>fool, that-one open-2s-NEG</font>
<br><i>Fool, don't open that!</i>
<p><b>En jeim bideš <u>dačiu</u>.</b>
<br><font size=2>to priest wine-ACC give-2s-NEG</font>
<br><i>Do not give the priest more wine.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The intensive forms can be used to accentuate the order.
<blockquote>
<b><u>Terinji</u>!</b>
<br><font size=2>shut-up-2s-FUT-INT</font>
<br><i>Shut <b>up</b>!</i>
<p><b>Meidemak <u>nolsugiu</u>!</b>
<br><font size=2>peasantry-ACC burn-2s-SUBJ-INT</font>
<br><i>Burninate the peasants!</i>
</blockquote>
<p>
<h4><a name="Prepositional">Prepositional phrases</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
Prepositional phrases should always be avoided if a locative will do. Compare <b>reinaro</b> with our 'in the river', <b>čalkaro</b> with 'on the table', <b>goro</b> 'at the temple'. The locative can also be used with time words: <b>noxo</b> 'at night', <b>eču</b> 'in the summer'.
<p>Prepositions must precede their nouns (about the only X that begins its X-bar in Axunašin): <b>en Jeiwor</b> 'toward Jeor', <b>peš goro</b> 'near the temple'. It's common, however, to place them <i>just </i>before the noun, after any modifiers: <b>rori </b><b><u>en</b></u><b> Jeiwor </b>'toward beautiful Jeiwor'; <b>tu vume rišei </b><b><u>lišo</b></u><b> eriwi</b> 'in front of those two tall trees'; <b>emourun </b><b><u>tek</b></u><b> nulsirti</b> 'without the great physician'.
<p>The object of the preposition is in the nominative or the accusative, according to the usual hierarchical rules. Pronouns, however, always appear in the accusative: <b>eš id</b> 'against me', <b>lišo ej</b> 'in front of you', <b>tek toe</b> 'without him/her'.
<p>Some of the more common prepositions in Axunašin:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>demuro</b></td>
<td>during</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>dul</b></td>
<td>between, among</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>duso</b></td>
<td>in back of, after</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>eš</b></td>
<td>against</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ešen</b></td>
<td>back to, returning to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>en</b></td>
<td>to, toward</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>enke</b></td>
<td>for the purpose of, in order to, in return for</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kuro</b></td>
<td>beside, at the side of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>lišo</b></td>
<td>in front of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mu</b></td>
<td>with</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nevi</b></td>
<td>over, above, on top of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>or</b></td>
<td>out of, away from</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>peivi</b></td>
<td>before (time)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>peš</b></td>
<td>near, around, about</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ran</b></td>
<td>in, into, inside</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>šuvi</b></td>
<td>under, beneath</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tek</b></td>
<td>without</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<p>Prepositions may be used with the infinitive: <b>tek omik</b> 'without thinking', <b>duso kejim</b> 'after eating'. For more on this, see <a href="#Transformations"><i>Transformations</i></a>.
<h4><a name="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
The most common conjunctions:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>li</b></td>
<td>and</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mutuči</b></td>
<td>moreover</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mata</b></td>
<td>or</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>peli</b></td>
<td>but</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>peliwa</b></td>
<td>on the contrary</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>louk</b></td>
<td>so, therefore</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>jideili</b></td>
<td>as a result, because of this</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tijamu</b></td>
<td>therefore, for that reason</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tilouk</b></td>
<td>because</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>keno</b></td>
<td>if / then</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tumiwa</b></td>
<td>rather, preferably</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
These can be placed between any two components of the same type:
<blockquote>
<b><u>nuvei li podei</u></b> <i>cats and dogs</i>
<br><b><u>vume mata dime</u> šugemei </b> <i>two or three beers</i>
<br><b>tu <u>kiune peli yuvure</u> šugeme</b> <i>that sour yet tasty beer</i>
<br><b><u>xamiu louk makiu</u></b> <i>I came, so I conquered </i>
<br><b><u>id tumiwa ej</u> kokei</b> <i>he hit not me but you</i>
</blockquote>
<p>See <a href="#Transformations"><i>Transformations</i></a> for more on the logical connectors and on conjunction reduction.
<h4><a name="Transformations">Transformations</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
In this section, I'll discuss Axunašin syntax as a set of <b><i>transformations</b></i>. No particular theoretical school is followed.
<p>Transformationalists once suggested that transformations represented derivations: at some level the brain produced 'deep structures' which were then converted by rules into 'surface structures'. However, what (scant) evidence we have suggests that this is not the case—e.g. sentences that involve multiple transformations don't require more time to produce or understand.
<p>More modestly, we can simply treat them as formulas: if <i>X</i> is a valid sentence, then its transformation T(<i>X</i>) is also a valid sentence.
<h5><a name="1.">1. Subordination</font></a></h5>
One of the basic operations of the grammar is subordination. Abstractly, we can see this as taking two equal clauses and specifying that one modifies the other. The most general formula for subordination in Axunašin is:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">S<font size=2>1</font></font> li <font color="blue">S<font size=2>2</font></font> → <font color="green">S<font size=2>1</font></font> naya <font color="blue">S<font size=2>2</font></font></b>
<br><i>S<font size=2>1</font> and S<font size=2>2</font> → S<font size=2>1</font> <that S<font size=2>2</font></i>
</blockquote>
<p><font color="green">S<font size=2>1</font></font> is the modifier, the <font color="green">subordinate clause</font>; this normally <i>precedes</i> the <font color="blue">main clause</font> in Axunašin, but <i>follows</i> it in English.
<p>The gloss <i><that</i> points left, at the subordinate clause; this convention is consistently followed in this grammatical sketch.
<p>This transformation is usually a basis for something else, but as it happens it can stand alone in Axunašin:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Ej ruweu</font> li <font color="blue">ej mabeu</font>. → <font color="green">Ej ruweu</font> naya <font color="blue">ej mabeu</font>.</b>
<br><i><font color="blue">I love you</font> and <font color="blue">I want you</font> → <font color="blue">I want you</font> that <font color="green">I love you</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The English gloss is purposely literal, to show that the equivalent transformation doesn't work in English. The meaning in Axunašin is that the statements are related, and the subordinate clause provides amplification or precision. A looser English translation of the example would be <i>I want you, in fact I love you. </i>Another example:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Nivei runie runutu</font> naya <font color="blue">nanui ewis runutu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>kings city-ACC rule-3p <that gods world-ACC rule-3p</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The gods rule the world</font> that <font color="green">the kings rule the city</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Again, the meaning is hard to express so directly in English. The rule of the kings is a complement to that of the gods; we might say <i>The gods rule the world and, in a similar way but on a lesser level, the kings rule the city.</i>
<p>
<h5><a name="2.">2. Sentential objects with indicative</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">x</font> <font color="green">(y z V<font size=2>1</font>)</font> <font color="blue">V<font size=2>2</font></font> → <font color="green">y z V<font size=2>1</font></font> naya <font color="blue">x V</font><font size=2>2</font></b>
</blockquote>
<p>Given that <font color="blue">s o V</font> represents a simple sentence, the formula represents a more complex case: the object of the outer verb <font color="blue">V<font size=2>2</font></font> is the entire sentence <font color="green">y z V<font size=2>1</font></font>. In Axunašin this is just another case of <i>naya</i>-subordination.
<p>The equivalent English transformation is <font color="green">y z V</font><font size=2>1</font> <i>that</i> <font color="blue">x V<font size=2>2</font></font> which we commonly use for verbs of speaking or knowing:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Gókima šagi</font> naya <font color="blue">zenačei.</font></b>
<br><font size=2>barrel-ACC is-missing <that knows-NEG</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">He doesn't know</font> that <font color="green">the barrel is missing</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Jouve enkeravunači zi</font> naya <font color="blue">zenmelez bugei</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>war meaningless is <that philosopher said</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The philosopher said</font> that <font color="green">war is pointless</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Judgments of <b><i>probability</b></i> are impersonal expressions in English; in Axunašin they are in the same category as 'know': someone must explicitly do the judging. The usual verb for this is <b>xawixem</b> 'expect' or its diminutive <b>xawixiki</b> 'expect somewhat':
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Guetu xumidi</font> naya <font color="blue">xawixoi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>duck lies <that expect-1s</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I expect</font> that <font color="green">the duck is lying</font>. <br>OR, Probably the duck is lying.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Reravirtui kaymivietu</font> naya <font color="blue">xawixikeu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>barbarians buy-3p-FUT <that expect-DIM-1s</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I somewhat expect</font> that <font color="green">the barbarians will buy it</font>. <br>OR, It's possible the barbarians will buy it.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="3.">3. Sentential objects with subjunctive</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">(x,</font> <font color="green">(y, z) V<font size=2>1</font>)</font> <font color="blue">V<font size=2>2</font></font> → <font color="green">y z V<font size=2>1</font><i>-subj</i></font> naya <font color="blue">x V<font size=2>2</font></font></b>
</blockquote>
<p>This is a simple variant of the previous pattern, with the subordinated verb in the subjunctive rather than the indicative; it's used for verbs of possibility, obligation, permission, and desire.
<p>In English these are usually expressed using the infinitive; in Axunašin there are two finite verbs (inflected by person, tense, and number).
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Tučimeu</font> naya <font color="blue">ruweu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>dance-1s-SUBJ <that want-1s</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I want</font> to <font color="green"> dance</font>. (Literally, I want that I dance.)</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Kizimei</font> naya <font color="blue">gi šizenučei</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>swim-3s-PAST-SUBJ <that boy know-3s-PAST-NEG</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The boy didn't know how</font> <font color="green">to swim</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Orgume eimireilenei</font> naya <font color="blue">mojivie</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>stranger meet-2s-FUT-SUBJ <that may-2s-FUT</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">You may</font> <font color="green">meet a stranger</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Wereme kejimomu</font> naya <font color="blue">nive empojačei</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>cheese eat-1p-SUBJ <that king allow-3s-NEG</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The king does not allow</font> <font color="green">us to eat cheese</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Since there is no negative subjunctive, if the subordinate clause expresses something negative, the negative tenses are used.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Peš šoban bugoučie</font> naya <font color="blue">ruwi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>about oatmeal speak-2s-PAST-NEG <that want-1s-PAST</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I wanted</font> <font color="green">you to not speak about the oatmeal</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>In English negatives have a way of migrating to the main verb: <i>I want you not to say it → I don't want you to say it. </i>Don't imitate this in Axunašin. You could certainly say
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Peš šoban bugimie</font> naya <font color="blue">ruwouči</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>about oatmeal speak-2s-PAST-SUBJ <that want-1s-PAST-NEG</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I didn't want</font> <font color="green">you to speak about the oatmeal</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>but it has a different meaning. The first example expressed my wish that you say nothing; the second merely denies that I had a wish that you speak.
<h5><a name="4.">4. Clause reversal</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">S<font size=2>1</font></font> naya <font color="blue">S<font size=2>2 </font></font> → <font color="blue">S<font size=2>2</font> </font>tinaya <font color="green">S<font size=2>1</font></font> </b>
</blockquote>
<p>From the color coding above, we see that Axunašin reverses the order of main and subordinate clauses, from our English-based perspective. Of course, these sentences sound normal and unremarkable in Axunašin.
<p>However, the order can be reversed, by the simple expedient of replacing <b>naya</b> with <b>tinaya</b>.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Nanu ujivei</font> naya <font color="blue">zenoi</font>. → <font color="blue">Zenoi</font> tinaya <font color="green">nanu ujivei</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>god hear-FUT <that know-1s → know-1s that> god hear-FUT </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I know</font> that <font color="green">the god will hear</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Čenkirtuim koribimutu</font> naya <font color="blue">zalai empoji</font>. → </b>
<br><font size=2>soldiers-ACC complain-3p-SUBJ <that general allow-3s </font>
<br><b><font color="blue">Zalai empoji</font> tinaya <font color="green">čenkirtuim koribimutu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>general allow-3s that> soldiers-ACC complain-3p-SUBJ</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The general allows</font> <font color="green">the soldiers to complain</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>This reversal is most often used when the subordinate clause is long, or for reported speech.
<p>In the glosses I write <i><that</i> for <b>naya</b>, where the subordinated clause is to the left, and <i>that></i> for <b>tinaya</b>, where the subordinated clause is to the right.
<h5><a name="5.">5. Causation and consequence</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">S<font size=2>1</font></font> li <font color="blue">S<font size=2>2</font></font> → <font color="green">S<font size=2>1</font></font> louk <font color="blue">S<font size=2>2</font></font></b>
<br><i>S<font size=2>1</font> and S<font size=2>2</font> → because S<font size=2>1</font>, S<font size=2>2</font></i>
</blockquote>
<p>This has the same structure as transformation 1, but adds the notion that the subordinate clause S<font size=2>1</font> is the cause of or reason for the main event S<font size=2>2</font>.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Tunuim kouluim kejei</font> louk <font color="blue">ir duzu nulači zi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>rotten-n-pl-ACC clams-ACC ate <because my servant sick-n is</font>
<br><i><font color="green">He ate the bad clams</font>, and so <font color="blue">my servant is sick</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Here too, the order of the phrases can be reversed by changing the particle, in this case from <b>louk</b> to <b>tilouk</b>:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Ir duzu nulači zi</font> tilouk <font color="green">tunuim kouluim kejei</font>. </b>
<br><font size=2>my servant sick-n is because> rotten-n-pl-ACC clams-ACC ate </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">My servant is sick</font> because <font color="green">he ate the bad clams</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p><b>Tilouk</b> emphasizes causation; there is also <b>jideili</b>, which expresses the slightly looser idea of results: something was done, and the immediate consequences were such-and-such.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Ti puvi ravatie</font> jideili <font color="green">muxi juni orrukietu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>this stone moved-1s results> many bugs out-scurried-3p</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I moved this stone</font>, and <font color="green">a bunch of bugs scurried out</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>And <b>tijamu</b> emphasizes logical consequence; it's particularly used in deduction or prediction.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Šikei jexiu</font> tijamu <font color="green">nuve tekore zi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>mice killed-1s therefore> cat hungry is</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">You killed all the mice</font>; therefore <font color="green">the cat is hungry</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="6.">6. The conditional</font></a></h5>
We're now ready to understand conditional expressions, which follow the formula
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green"><i>not </i>S<font size=2>1</font></font> keno <font color="blue"><i>subj </i>S<font size=2>2</font></font></b>
</blockquote>
That is, the <font color="green">condition</font> is stated in the negative, and the <font color="blue">consequent</font> is stated in the subjunctive. (There is no conditional tense as in the Romance languages, nor a conditional auxiliary as in English. There are also no degrees of conditionality, as in Verdurian or Cuêzi.)
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Tíbelez ančokun šačei</font> keno, <font color="blue">tibel ran bóumedoum šui.</font></b>
<br><font size=2>steward awake was-3s-NEG <if horse in barn-ACC be-3s-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>(Lit.) The steward was not awake; otherwise, the horse be in the barn.
<br>If <font color="green">the steward had been awake</font>, <font color="blue">the horse would be in the barn</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Turalo komačeimu</font> keno, <font color="blue">komu eidemu šuomu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>Curau-LOC reside-1p-NEG <if house-LOC now be-1p-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>(Lit.) We do not live in Curau; otherwise, we be at home now.
<br>If <font color="green">we lived in Curau</font>, <font color="blue">we'd be home by now</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>If the condition is negative, it's stated positively. That may sound contradictory, but the contradiction is just with English usage. If you think of the literal glosses—<i>X didn't happen, otherwise Y</i>—then if X <i>did</i> happen you of course say so: <i>X happened, otherwise Y</i>.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Boumei moumu</font> keno, <font color="blue">tibeli midoumu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>cows have-1p <if horses have-1p-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>(Lit.) We have cows; otherwise we have horses.
<br>If <font color="green">we didn't have cows</font>, <font color="blue">we'd have horses</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>If the consequent is to be denied, the subjunctive is replaced with the negative:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Tibeli mačumu</font> keno, <font color="blue">boumiei unkemi šuomu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>horses have-1p-NEG <if cows-GEN herders be-1p-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>(Lit.) We don't have horses; otherwise we not be dairymen.
<br>If <font color="green">we had horses</font>, <font color="blue">we would not be dairymen</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Tibeli moumu</font> keno, <font color="blue">reravirtui šačoumu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>horses have-1p <f barbarians be-1p-NEG</font>
<br><i>(Lit.) We have horses; otherwise we not be barbarians.
<br>If <font color="green">we didn't have horses</font>, <font color="blue">we would not be barbarians</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The condition and consequent can be reversed using the particle <b>tikeno</b>:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Ewume jeim maču</font> keno <font color="blue">to neikwen šui</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>grandmother wheels-ACC have-3s-NEG <if she wagon-ACC be-3s-SUBJ </font>
<br><i>If <font color="green">grandmother had wheels</font>, <font color="blue">she'd be a wagon</font>.
<p><b>→</b></i>
<p><b><font color="blue">Ewume neikwen šui</font> tikeno <font color="green">to jeim maču</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>grandmother wagon-ACC be-3s-SUBJ if> she wheels-ACC have-3s-NEG </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Grandmother would be a wagon</font>, if <font color="green">she had wheels</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The particles <b>keno</b> and <b>tikeno</b> assume that the condition is counterfactual. In English we use <i>if-then </i>constructions to express logical consequences; these are not <b>keno</b> (conditional) expressions in Axunašin, but <b>tijamu</b> (consequential) ones. Compare:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Turalo komačeimu</font> keno, <font color="blue">komu eidemu šuomu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>Curau-LOC reside-1p-NEG <if house-LOC now be-1p-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>If <font color="green">we lived in Curau</font>, <font color="blue">we'd be home by now</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Turalo komumu</font> tijamu <font color="blue">komu eidemu izomu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>Curau-LOC reside-1p therefore> house-LOC now be-1p</font>
<br><i>If <font color="green">we live in Curau</font>, then <font color="blue">we're home</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="7.">7. Pronominalization</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → to O V → S toe V</b>
</blockquote>
<p>Pronominalization can be seen as a transformation: a full noun phrase is replaced by an equivalent pronoun. The singular <b>to</b> is of course replaced with plural <b>keï</b> as needed.
<blockquote>
<b>Geivez šejidi yaji → Geivez <u>keim</u> yaji / To šejidi yaji / <u>To keim</u> yaji</b>
<br><font size=2>noble deer-PL-ACC hunt-3s</font>
<br><i>The noble hunts the deer → The noble hunts them / He hunts the deer / He hunts them</i>
</blockquote>
<p>When the subject is pronominalized, it may be moved before the verb: <b>Šejidi </b><b>to</b><b> yaji</b>.
<p>A dative expression (<b>en NP</b>) is replaced with dative pronouns:
<blockquote>
<b>Emourun jurumi en kaluvurim monzim diu → Emourun jurumi <u>tomu</u> diu </b>
<br><font size=2>wise advice to grateful girl-ACC give-1s-PAST</font>
<br><i>I gave the grateful girl some wise advice → I gave her wise advice</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Recall that pronouns don't use the dominant/subordinate noun cases. E.g. <b>to</b> is always the subject, <b>toe</b> the object.
<p>The genitive pronouns can't be used as substantives: i.e. there is no one-word equivalent to English 'mine, yours, ours.' Instead one says <b>ir tuč</b> 'mine' etc.:
<blockquote>
<b>Ir čenke meu; <u>rir tuč</u> jinari zi?</b>
<br><font size=2>my sword have-1s / your that-one where is</font>
<br><i>I have my sword; where is yours?</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="8.">8. Subject deletion</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → (to) O V </b>
</blockquote>
<p>If a subject is unknown, indefinite, or simply unimportant, it can be omitted. For clarity it's usually replaced with a pronoun, making this transformation a special case of pronominalization (#7). However, if the subject and object don't match in number—so there's no possible confusion—the pronoun can be omitted.
<blockquote>
<b>Šoban to čeirei.</b>
<br><font size=2>oatmeal he cook-PAST</font>
<br><i>The oatmeal has been cooked.</i>
<p><b>En kourazemi (keï) ewume ninmalietu.</b>
<br><font size=2>to Skourenes they grandmother sell-3p-PAST</font>
<br><i>Grandmother was sold to the Skourenes.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Axunašin is not rich in pronominal resources, and out of context it's impossible to say if someone means <i>He cooked the oatmeal </i>or <i>Somebody cooked the oatmeal. </i>If we've been talking about a specific person, the 'he' interpretation is more likely. One may also clarify by <ul>
<li> using <b>tuč</b> 'that one', which never represents an indefinite subject—e.g. <b>Kourazez tuč kexei</b> can only mean 'the Skourene killed him', not 'someone killed the Skourene'; or
<li> using <b>wenke</b> 'someone', which is always indefinite.</ul>
<h5><a name="9.">9. Relativization</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">[X VP<font size=2>1</font>]</font> <font color="blue">X VP<font size=2>2</font></font> → <font color="green">To VP<font size=2>1</font></font> naya X <font color="blue">VP<font size=2>2</font></font></b>
<br><i>X does this and that → The X who does this does that(X is subject of both clauses)</i>
<p><b><font color="green">[S1 X V<font size=2>1</font>]</font> <font color="blue">X VP<font size=2>2</font></font> → <font color="green">S1 toe VP<font size=2>1</font></font> naya X <font color="blue">VP<font size=2>2</font></font></b>
<br><i>This happens to X, X does that → The X something happened to does that (X is subject of main clause, object of subordinate clause)</i>
</blockquote>
<p><b>Naya</b> can be used to form a <b><i>relative clause</b></i>—a clause subordinated to a noun. In such sentences the head noun also plays a role in the subordinate clause—subject, object, or something else. It's replaced with the 3s pronoun <b>to/toe</b> (in other words, transformation 7 is applied), then the entire subclause is placed before the head noun, preceded by <b>naya</b>.
<p>An example where the head noun is the subject of the subordinate clause:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Tučirtim geivez kalu</font>. <font color="blue">Tučirtim peš goro komi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>dancer-ACC noble pleased. dancer-ACC near temple resides</font>
<br><i>The dancer pleased the noble. The dancer lives near the temple.
<p><b>→</b></i>
<p><b><font color="green">To geivez kalu</font> naya tučirtim <font color="blue">peš goro komi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>she noble pleased that dancer-ACC near temple resides</font>
<br><i>The dancer <font color="green">who pleased the noble</font> <font color="blue">lives near the temple</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>And one where it's the object:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Geivez tučirtim mabe</font>. <font color="blue">Tučirtim peš goro komi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>noble dancer-ACC loves. dancer-ACC near temple resides</font>
<br><i>The noble loves the dancer. The dancer lives near the temple.
<p><b>→</b></i>
<p><b><font color="green">Geivez toe mabe</font> naya tučirtim <font color="blue">peš goro komi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>noble her loves that dancer near temple lives</font>
<br><i>The dancer <font color="green">who the noble loves</font> <font color="blue">lives near the temple</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Curiously, these sentences can be analyzed two ways. We can say that the <font color="green">subclause</font> modifies the head noun (as I've stated it above); or that the subclause modifies the entire <font color="blue">main clause</font>—a variant of transformation 1. However, only the first analysis works when the modified noun isn't the subject of the main clause:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Lejegum šoban čejei</font>. <font color="blue">Nive lejegum petibei</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>official-ACC oatmeal brought. king official-ACC praised.</font>
<br><i>The official brought the oatmeal. The king praised the official.
<p><b>→</b></i>
<p><b><font color="blue">Nive</font> <font color="green">to šoban čejei</font> naya <font color="blue">lejegum petibei</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>official him oatmeal brought <that king official praised.</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The king praised the official</font> <font color="green">who brought the oatmeal</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Only the pronoun prevents us from reading <b>Nive šoban čejei... </b>'the king brought the oatmeal'; nonetheless, it's fairly frequent for the pronoun to be omitted. Presumably this reflects speech intonations that kept the meaning clear (e.g. a pause between <b>nive</b><i> </i>and <b>šoban</b>, or pronouncing <b>šoban čejei naya </b>as a breath unit or with a distinctive pitch contour). However, it can make interpretation of written texts difficult. For instance, consider this line from an alchemical manual:
<blockquote>
<b>Kiulo tore paviču naya youji benki naya monzi emourun bezisivu.</b>
<br><font size=2>sky-LOC fire kissed <that beetle blesses <that maiden wise supplicates</font>
</blockquote>
<p>With no pronouns given, and no guarantee of SOV order, it's not clear who is kissing, blessing, and supplicating whom; worse yet, it's not even clear that these <b>naya</b> clauses are subordinate to the nouns, or to entire sentences. It's only familiarity with the characteristic attributes of Mešaic gods that enables us to properly parse this sentence:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Emourun</font> <font color="red">kiulo tore toe paviču</font> naya <font color="green">youji to benki</font> naya <font color="blue">monzi bezisivu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>wise [[sky-LOC fire her-1 kissed <that] beetle-1 she-2 blesses <that] maiden-2 supplicates</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The wise man supplicates to the maiden</font>, who <font color="green">blesses the beetle</font> that <font color="red">the fire in the sky salutes</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>(OK, we can parse it, but what does it mean? The noun phrases refer to gods: the beetle is the earth goddess Meidimexi; the fire in the sky is the sun god Inbamu. Alchemically this refers to the roasting of certain clays. The result of this is dissolved in 'the maiden'—the female principle of the body, which is water. This is only part of the text, which is a recipe for a healing poultice. As the Verdurians say, it's no wonder that Xurnese religions teach resignation.)
<p>Can one move a clause by switching to <b>tinaya</b>? But of course. The clause can only be moved to a position after the verb; this is generally done when there's only one noun phrase it can refer back to.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">To tiei šuniš muruvax ulivatimi naya to šizeni</font> naya <font color="blue">duxirti petivevoumu</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>he our language-GEN grammar explain-3s that he can-3s <that teacher praise-1p-FUT </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Let us praise the teacher</font> <font color="green">who can explain the grammar of Axunašin</font>.
<p><b>→</b></i>
<p><b><font color="blue">Duxirti petivevoumu</font> tinaya <font color="green">to tiei šuniš muruvax ulivatimi naya to šizeni</font>.</b>
</blockquote>
<p>Pronominalization can be applied to the main clause rather than the subordinate clause. Compare:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">To geivez kalu</font> naya tučirtim <font color="blue">peš goro komi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>she noble pleased <that dancer near temple resides</font>
<br><b><font color="green">Tučirtim geivez kalu</font> naya to <font color="blue">peš goro komi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>dancer noble pleases <that she near temple resides</font>
<br><i>The dancer who <font color="green">pleased the noble</font> <font color="blue">lives near the temple</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Geivez toe mabe</font> naya tučirtim <font color="blue">peš goro komi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>noble her loves that dancer near temple lives</font>
<br><b><font color="green">Geivez tučirtim mabe</font> naya to <font color="blue">peš goro komi</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>noble dancer loves that she near temple lives</font>
<br><i>The dancer <font color="green">who the noble loves</font> <font color="blue">lives near the temple</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The subclause is now a full sentence; the effect is to make it weightier, to counter the feeling of lesser importance normally imparted by the relative clause.
<h5><a name="10.">10. Clefting</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V-<i>morph</i> → <font color="green">S xam-<i>morph </i>naya</font> to O V</b>
<br><i>S does O → It's S that does O</i>
<p><b>S O V-<i>morph</i> → <font color="green">O xam-<i>morph </i>naya</font> S toe V</b>
<br><i>S does O → It's O that's done by S</i>
</blockquote>
<p>These transformations, an idiomatic use of relativization, focus attention on the extracted component.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Zimik xami naya</font> to teim xulkimei.</b>
<br><font size=2>maiden comes <that she us enchant-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>It's the girl who bewitched us.The <u>girl</u> bewitched us.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Malto xami naya</font> toe šuvipoukiu.</b>
<br><font size=2>bald-one comes <that him disappoint-2s-PAST</font>
<br><i>It's the bald man you have disappointed.You disappointed the <u>bald man</u>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p><b>Xamim</b> may be put in the past tense, the intensive, the subjunctive, etc., as appropriate.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Zimik xamimei naya</font> to teim xulkimei.</b>
<br><font size=2>maiden come-3s-PAST-SUBJ <that she us enchant-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>It may have been the girl who bewitched us.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Any component can be so extracted, including the verb:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Dusodeimo xami naya</font> tibelmex poudixamevei.</b>
<br><font size=2>tomorrow comes <that stablemaster return-3s-FUT</font>
<br><i>It's tomorrow that the stablemaster returns.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Lumivie xami naya</font> ri tíbeldouz.</b>
<br><font size=2>wash-2s-FUT comes <that you stable</font>
<br><i>It's washing that you'll do to the stable.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>As usual, these can be reversed using <b>tinaya</b>.
<blockquote>
<b>To teim xulkimei <font color="green">tinaya zimik xami</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>she us enchant-3s-PAST that> maiden comes </font>
<br><i>The one who bewitched us, it's the girl.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="11.">11. Nominalization</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → S-gen O-loc V-inf</b>
</blockquote>
<p>The main use of the infinitive in Axunašin is to create nominalizations. As shown, the subject is converted to the genitive, the object to the locative, and the verb to the infinitive.
<blockquote>
<b>šel mudi sisiki → šeliš mudo sisikim</b>
<br><font size=2>uncle sheep-PL bother-3s → uncle-GEN sheep-LOC bother-INF</font>
<i>uncle bothers the sheep → uncle's bothering of the sheep</i>
</blockquote>
<p>As the personal endings are lost, omitted pronouns must be restored, except for indefinite ones (transformation 8). If the object is a pronoun, it's placed in the dative.
<blockquote>
<b>nemuroi → ir nemurem</b>
<br><font size=2>sleep-1s → my sleep-INF</font>
<i>I sleep → my sleeping</i>
<p><b>Keï ej pešbugutu → rimu pešbugi</b>
<br><font size=2>they you-ACC discuss-3p → you-DAT discuss-INF</font>
<br><i>People are talking about you → discussing you</i>
</blockquote>
<p>An infinitive alone, or an infinitival expression, can be used as either subject or object of a sentence, or as the object of a preposition.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Rir bezisik</font> Meša kale.</b>
<br><font size=2>your supplicating Meša pleases</font>
<i>Your supplication pleases Meša.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Simu muelik</font> <font color="red">simu jidim</font> zi.</b>
<br><font size=2>me-DAT know me-DAT bear is</font>
<i>To know me is to tolerate me.</i>
<p><b>Ir mipivui <font color="green">ir šebarešo esidemu ituri</font> gerisagačietu.</b>
<br><font size=2>my parents my books-LOC always reading understand-3p-NEG</font>
<i>My parents do not understand my reading books all the time.</i>
<p><b>Dowogu tek <font color="green">suki</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>nothing without stab-INF</font>
<i>Without pain there is nothing.</i>
<p>(A motto of Axunemi magicians. The idea goes far beyond our "No pain no gain"; the idea is that if prayer and formulas do not accomplish your goal, you must resort to methods that involve suffering or even horror.)
</blockquote>
<p>English (and Verdurian) speakers must be careful not to take the Axunašin infinitive as equivalent to their own. Where we use the infinitive, Axunašin almost always uses a sentential object with a finite verb (transformations 2 and 3). The Axunašin infinitive corresponds more to our gerund, or to nominalizations, as in the English glosses above.
<h5><a name="12.">12. The progressive</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V-<i>morph</i> → S ran <font color="green">O-loc V-inf</font> rav-<i>morph</i></b>
</blockquote>
<p>The progressive is an idiom which makes use of infinitive nominalizations. Its meaning is that the action is incomplete or ongoing.
<blockquote>
<b>Ran <font color="green">ituri</font> ravoi.</b>
<br><font size=2>in reading go-1s</font>
<i>I am reading. (Lit., I go in to read.)</i>
<p><b>Kourazemi ran <font color="green">en nimnalai xamim</font> raviutu.</b>
<br><font size=2>Skourenes in to market going go-PAST-3p</font>
<i>The Skourenese were coming to the market.</i>
<p><b>Ran <font color="green">muxu šugemu pidi</font> ravevei.</b>
<br><font size=2>in many-f-LOC beer-LOC drinking go-FUT-3s</font>
<i>He'll be drinking many beers.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>This idiom first appears in the late Ezičimi period, with some variation in the verb and preposition, and apparently a very colloquial air—the first references are all condemnations of this barbaric practice. It becomes standard in the classical language, however.
<p>Comparing this rule to nominalization, the reader may wonder why the subject isn't in the genitive. The reason is that it's the subject of the main clause verb, <b>ravem</b>. We may say that the subclause has a subject in the genitive, which is deleted since it's redundant.
<p>This analysis is strengthened by the fact that the genitive returns when the subject <i>isn't</i> identical to that of the main clause. The <b>ran</b> <b><i>+ infinitival</b></i> <b><i>phrase</b></i> construction can be used alone, usually to tell what someone was doing when another event occurred:
<blockquote>
<b>Ran <font color="green">tíbelemiš pipidun izem</font> geivez poudixamei.</b>
<br><font size=2>in steward-GEN drunk be-INF lord return-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>When the lord returned, the steward was drunk.</i>
<p><b>Ran <font color="green">edelmiriš pupučo gojisem</font> emourun uliak ituri.</b>
<br><font size=2>in fool-GEN belly-LOC feeding wise classics-ACC reads </font>
<br><i>The wise man reads the classics while the fool is filling his belly.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>If an action began in the past but is still going on, Axunašin uses the progressive and we use the present perfect:
<blockquote>
<b>Ran <font color="green">Weinexo demuro deiz soumi komi</font> ravoi.</b>
<br><font size=2>in Weinex-LOC during ten years living go-1s </font>
<br><i>I've lived in Weinex for ten years.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="13.">13. Causatives</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">E O V</font> → S <font color="green">O-loc V-inf E-dat</font> dem<i>-morph </i></b>
<br><i>S causes (E does O) → S causes E to do O</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Causative sentences can be seen as a development of nominalization (#11). That is, the caused action E O V is first turned into an infinitival phrase; its subject E then becomes a dative in the main clause—directly expressed if it's a pronoun, or with <b>en</b> if it's a noun phrase.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Kon ruweu</font>. →</b>
<br><font size=2>jewel desire-1s-PAST →</font>
<br><i>I desired the jewel. →</i>
<p><b>Xul nanu <font color="green">kono ruwik simu</font> dei.</b>
<br><font size=2>evil god jewel-LOC desire me-DAT give-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>The demon made me covet the jewel.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Duzum tibeli pešunšivu</font>. →</b>
<br><font size=2>servant-ACC horses prepare-1s-FUT →</font>
<br><i>The servant will prepare the horses. →</i>
<p><b>Géiveme <font color="green">tibeli pešunšik en duzum</font> devei.</b>
<br><font size=2>noblewoman horses preparing to servant give-3s-FUT</font>
<br><i>The lady will have the servant prepare the horses.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="14.">14. Adverbialization </font></a></h5>
An entire sentence may function as an adverbial—e.g. a <i>where</i> clause is the equivalent of a locative; a <i>when</i> clause is the equivalent of a temporal adverb. There are several ways to do this in Axunašin.
<p>The first we've already encountered: <b>nominalization</b> used as the object of a preposition.
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → <i>prep </i><font color="green">S-gen O-loc V-inf</font>
<p>Reis rame kejei → duso reiviš ramu kejim</b>
<br><font size=2>wolf frog eat-3s-PAST → after wolf-GEN frog-LOC eat-INF</font>
<br><i>the wolf ate the frog → after the wolf's eating of the frog </i>
<p><b>Reis duso <font color="green">toiš ramu kejim</font> bideš ruwu.</b>
<br><font size=2>wolf after his frog-LOC eat-INF wine-ACC desire-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>After <font color="green">he ate the frog</font>, the wolf wanted wine.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>In imitation of prepositions moving forward in noun phrases, the preposition sometimes migrates before the verb: <b><font color="green">toiš ramu</font> duso <font color="green">kejim</font></b>.
<p>The next is <b>relativization</b>, <i>followed </i>by the preposition. (Perhaps we should call it an adposition in this case.)
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → <font color="green">S O V</font> naya <i>prep</i>
<p>Reis rame kejei → <font color="green">reis rame kejei</font> naya duso</b>
<br><font size=2>wolf frog eat-3s-PAST → wolf frog eat-3s-PAST <that after</font>
<br><i>the wolf ate the frog → after the wolf ate the frog </i>
<p><b>Reis <font color="green">to rame kejei</font> naya duso bideš ruwu.</b>
<br><font size=2>wolf he frog-LOC eat-3s-PAST <that after wine-ACC desire-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>After <font color="green">he ate the frog</font>, the wolf wanted wine.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The final type uses <b>relative pronouns</b>. English uses its interrogative pronouns for this, but Axunašin uses its demonstratives, e.g. <b>tinari</b> 'there', <b>tidemu</b> 'then'.
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → <font color="green">S O V</font> <i>pron</i>
<p>Lejeguim <font color="green">runirti poudixamei tidemu</font> ran nemurem raviutu.</b>
<br><font size=2>official-PL-ACC governor return-3s-PAST then in sleeping go-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i><font color="green">When the governor returned</font>, the officials were sleeping.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Ezičimel nei tinari</font> doum reileviu.</b>
<br><font size=2>Ezičimel born-3s-PAST there house-ACC see-2s-FUT</font>
<br><i>Here you see the house <font color="green">where Ezičimel was born</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="15.">15. Adverbialization movement</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S advP O V → advP S O V
</b></blockquote>
<p>All three types of adverbials are something of a load in the middle of the sentence; it's therefore normal to move them to the front of the sentence. They can also be moved after the verb, for emphasis.
<blockquote>
<b>Duso <font color="green">toiš ramu kejim</font> reis bideš ruwu.
<br><font color="green">To rame kejei</font> naya duso reis bideš ruwu.</b>
<br><i>After he ate the frog, the wolf wanted wine.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Runirti poudixamei tidemu</font> lejeguim ran nemurem raviutu.</b>
<br><i><font color="green">When the governor returned</font>, the officials were sleeping.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="16.">16. Simile</font></a></h5>
Simile can be considered another type of adverbialization; but it has several variations, so that it's better discussed separately.
<p>The root transformation is simply to say that something has the form or shape (<b>murus</b>) of something else (expressed in the genitive):
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Reiviš muruvo</font> Ušimex xamei</b>
<br><font size=2>wolf-GEN form-LOC Ušimex come-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>Ušimex came in the form of a wolf.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>This became generalized to all sorts of resemblance, not only visual. (Indeed, if an actual shape was meant, one had to add <b>enke wei</b> 'to the eyes' before <b>muruvo</b>.)
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">noumuvačiei muruvo</font></b>
<br><font size=2>virgin-GEN form-LOC </font>
<br><i>like a virgin</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Vaymeziei muruvo</font> pidi.</b>
<br><font size=2>sailor-GEN form-LOC drink-3s</font>
<br><i>He drinks <font color="green">like a sailor</font>.</i>
<p><b>Sulito <font color="green">lišo nuve šikei muruvo</font> zidei.</b>
<br><font size=2>youth before cat mouse-GEN form-LOC shudder-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>He trembled <font color="green">like a mouse in front of a cat</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>A more elaborate simile subordinates an entire sentence, using <b>naya</b>:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Šikeim nuve yaji naya muruvo</font> Čeba Deijuni makei.</b>
<br><font size=2>mice-PL-ACC cat hunt-3s <that form-LOC</font><font size=2> Čeba De:iju attack-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>Čeba attacked the De:iju <font color="green">as a cat hunts mice</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="17.">17. Question formation with particles</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → S O <u>jiti</u> V-<i>subj</i></b>
<br><i>S does O → Does S do O?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Yes/no questions are formed by placing the verb in the subjunctive and preceding it with the particle <b>jiti</b>.
<blockquote>
<b>Ewume kazin <u>jiti</u> peijudimei?</b>
<br><font size=2>grandmother Caďinorian Q scare-3s-PAST-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Did grandmother scare the Caďinorian?</i>
<p><b>Unkez mu zimik <u>jiti</u> noumanitu?</b>
<br><font size=2>shepherd with girl Q marry-3p-FUT-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Will the shepherd marry the girl?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>These should be answered with the verb in the indicative or the negative, as appropriate. Or if the answer is indefinite, simply repeat the subjunctive from the question.
<blockquote>
<b>Peijudei. Peijudučei. Peijudimei.</b>
<br><font size=2>scare-3s-PAST scare-3s-PAST-NEG scare-3s-PAST-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Yes, she scared him. No, she didn't. Well, she might have.</i>
<p><b>Noumivitu. Noumoučitu. Noumanitu.</b>
<br><font size=2>marry-3p-FUT marry-3p-NEG marry-3p-FUT-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Yes, they'll marry. No, they won't. They might marry.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Negative questions are asked by using the negative mood, with <b>jiti</b> replaced by <b>jitu</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Nive ti jamu <u>jitu</u>zenačei?</b>
<br><font size=2>king this subject negQ know-3s-NEG</font>
<br><i>The king doesn't know about this, does he?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>They're answered in the same way as positive questions: <b>zeni </b>'he knows' / <b>zenačei </b>'he doesn't know' / <b>zenimi </b>'he might know'. (However, the intensive is often used to indicate that the questioner's negativity is wrong.)
<p>The question particle can be inserted before any element to question it. We usually accomplish the same thing by stressing the element. Both English and Axunašin can cleft the element instead; see the next transformation.
<blockquote>
<b><u>Jiti</u> rir berivu esie šugema pidimei?</b>
<br><font size=2>Q your brother all beer-ACC drink-3s-PAST-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Did <u>your brother</u> drink all the beer?</i>
<p><b>Rir berivu <u>jiti</u> esie šugema pidimei?</b>
<br><i>Did your brother drink <u>all</u> the beer?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>One can suggest a set of alternatives with the construction <b>jiti...jitu</b>.... This can be analyzed 'Q this (or) Q that' and is thought to be the origin of the question transformation, especially since it predates the latter in our available texts.
<blockquote>
<b>Gume <font color="green">jiti pipidun jitu edelmirun</font> šui?</b>
<br><font size=2>man <font color="green">Q drunk Q foolish</font> be-3s-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Is the man <u>drunk</u> or <u>stupid</u>?</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="18.">18. Question clefting</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V-<i>morph</i> → <font color="green">Jiti S xam-<i>subj </i>naya</font> to O V</b>
<br><i>S does O → Is it S that does O?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The previous transformation can be combined with clefting (#10) to focus and question an element in the sentence. In this case the question particle begins the sentence. Both verbs are placed in the subjunctive.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Jiti Jadijilmei unkez xamenei naya</font> to mu toe noumanitu?</b>
<br><font size=2>Q Butt-Hill-GEN shepherd come-3s-SUBJ that she with him marry-3p-FUT-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Is it the shepherd from Butt Hill that she's marrying?</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="19.">19. Question formation with pronouns</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → <font color="green">Jei</font> O V</b>
<br><i>S did O → Who did O?</i>
<p><b>S O V → S <font color="green">jem</font> V</b>
<br><i>S did O → S did who?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>To ask who did something or who it was done to, the component is replaced by the appropriate form of <b>jei</b> 'who/what'.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Jei</font> šoban ruwu?</b>
<br><font size=2>who</font><font size=2> oatmeal want-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>Who wanted the oatmeal?</i>
<p><b>Rir sinu <font color="green">jem</font> kokei?</b>
<br><font size=2>your mother-in-law </font><font size=2>whom</font><font size=2> hit-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>Who did your mother-in-law hit?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>As the last example shows, it's normal to leave the interrogative wherever it occurs, even if it's deeply buried in the sentence:
<blockquote>
<b>Rir pivu ran toe <font color="green">jem</font> kimei naya bóumedoum čousu?</b>
<br><font size=2>your father in it what put <that barn-ACC fall-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i>The barn that your father put <b>what</b> in fell down?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>Other interrogatives (<b>ji</b> 'which', <b>jidemu </b>'when', <b>jinari </b>'where', <b>touno</b> 'what', <b>ji ende </b>'how') work the same way, taking the place of the unknown component.
<blockquote>
<b>Mešariš goro <font color="green">jinari</font> zi?</b>
<br><font size=2>Meša-GEN temple where is</font>
<br><i>Where is the temple of Meša?</i>
<p><b>Bodogirti <font color="green">jidemu</font> xamevei?</b>
<br><font size=2>wanderer when come-3s-FUT</font>
<br><i>When will the wanderer arrive?</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Ji</font> der tusagie?</b>
<br><font size=2>which door choose-2s-PAST</font>
<br><i>Which door have you chosen?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The examples so far have been in the indicative, indicating that they refer to events we consider real, even if we don't know all the details. If the event itself is uncertain, we can use the subjunctive instead.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Jei</font> einari komimi?</b>
<br><font size=2>who here reside-3s-SUBJ</font>
<br><i>Who, if anyone, lives here?</i>
<p><b>Wenke <font color="green">ji ende</font> ti jamuim zezenenei?</b>
<br><font size=2>someone which way these matters learn-FUT-SUBJ </font>
<br><i>How are these things learned?</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="20.">20. Interrogative movement</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Jei</font> O V → O <font color="green">jei</font> V → O V <font color="green">jei</font></b>
<br><i>Who did O?</i>
</blockquote>
<p>In English we generally front the interrogative expression. This is not necessary in Axunašin; but the question words can if desired be moved just before the verb, or even just after it.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Jei</font> šoban ruwu? → Šoban <font color="green">jei</font> ruwu? → Šoban ruwu <font color="green">jei</font>?</b>
<br><i>Who wanted the oatmeal?</i>
<p><b>Rir sinu <font color="green">jem</font> bugei? → Rir sinu kokei <font color="green">jem</font>?</b>
<br><i>Who did your mother-in-law hit?</i>
<p><b>Wenke <font color="green">ji ende</font> ti jamuim zezenenei? → Wenke ti jamuim <font color="green">ji ende</font> zezenenei?</b>
<br><i>How are these things learned?</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="21.">21. Topicalization</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b>S O V → O V S <br>S O V → S V O</b>
</blockquote>
<p>We've seen the possibility of placing constituents after the verb—clauses, adverbials, interrogatives. This can be done simply to put long constituents out of the way; but it also adds emphasis, even suspense.
<p>This can be done with the subject or object as well, generally to introduce a new referent, or give striking new information about an existing one.
<blockquote>
<b>Ran pididouz xamiei <font color="green">dai bugurači gume</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>in tavern come-3s-PAST big unspeaking man</font>
<br><i>Into the tavern came a large, silent man.</i>
<p><b>Mumu reildeviu <font color="green">jexirti</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>you-DAT reveal-1s-FUT killer</font>
<br><i>I will reveal to you the murderer.</i>
</blockquote>
<h5><a name="22.">22. Conjoint reduction</font></a></h5>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">S<font size=2>1</font> O<font size=2>1</font> V</font> li <font color="green">S<font size=2>2</font> O<font size=2>2</font> V</font>
→
<font color="blue">S<font size=2>1</font> O<font size=2>1</font> V</font> li <font color="green">S<font size=2>2</font> en O<font size=2>2</font></font></b>
</blockquote>
<p>A shared verb in conjoined sentences can be removed; the object is marked with <b>en</b> to help avoid word salad. This is best demonstrated with an example:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Tazipivu Tannaza makei</font> li <font color="green">Tima toiš mez Naiyormen makei</font>. →</b>
<br><font size=2>Tazipivu Tannaza conquered and Tima his son Niormen conquered</font>
<br><i>Tazipivu conquered Tannaza, and his son Tima conquered Niormen. →</i>
<p><b><font color="blue">Tazipivu Tannaza makei</font> li <font color="green">Tima toiš mez en Naiyormen</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>Tazipivu Tannaza conquered and Tima his son to Niormen</font>
<br><i>Tazipivu conquered Tannaza, and his son Tima Niormen.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>It's possible to analyze other conjunctions as showing deletion of shared material:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Tima Naiyorman makei</font> li <font color="green">Tima Ranjavim makei</font>. →</b>
<br><font size=2>Tima Niormen conquered and Tima Rajjay conquered</font>
<br><i>Tima conquered Niormen and Tima conquered Rajjay.</i>
<p><b><font color="blue">Tima Naiyorman</font> li <font color="green">Ranjavim</font> makei. </b>
<br><font size=2>Tima Niormen and Rajjay-ACC conquered</font>
<br><i>Tima conquered Niormen and Rajjay.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>However, it's simpler to analyze these as having compound objects: i.e. the second sentence isn't derived from the first, but simply has <b>Naiyorman li Ranjavim</b> as its object.
<p>On the other hand, the following curious construction most likely shows a variation of conjoint reduction:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="blue">Meidez šugema čečensei</font> li <font color="green">xami toiš mez</font>.</b>
<br><font size=2>farmer beer-ACC ordered and comes his son </font>
<br><i>The farmer ordered a beer and his son did too.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The use of <b>xamim</b> recalls clefting (transformation 10); but what's it a cleft <i>of</i>? Not of the main sentence, which has a different subject. Instead it seems that a full conjoint was present (<font color="green"><b>toiš mez šugema čečensei</font></b> 'his son ordered a beer'), it was clefted to isolate the new information (<b><font color="green">toiš mez xami naya to šugema čečensei</font></b>), and the remainder of the sentence was discarded as redundant. Finally the subject was moved after <b>xami</b> (which serves a grammatical role and thus isn't worth giving the emphatic sentence-final position).
<h5><a name="23.">23. Adjective complements</font></a></h5>
In some cases an adjective can govern a subclause. This can generally be done either by relativization, or with a participle.
<p>The first method is similar to relativization of nouns:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">to bouma roti</font> → <font color="green">to bouma roti</font> naya šemeli</b>
<br><font size=2>he cow pull-3s → cow pull-3s <that able </font>
<br><i>He pulls a cow → able to pull a cow</i>
<p><b><font color="green">toe jexeviutu</font> → <font color="green">toe jexeviutu</font> naya rutun</b>
<br><font size=2>him kill-3p-FUT → him kill-3s-PAST <that hurried</font>
<br><i>They will kill him → eager to be killed</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The second method is to use the participle in -<b>uri</b> or -<b>okun</b>.
<blockquote>
<b>to šugema pidi → šugema (to) piduri </b>
<br><font size=2>he beer drink-3s → beer (he) drinking</font>
<br><i>he drinks beer → him drinking beer</i>
</blockquote>
<p>When used as an adjective, the subject of the subclause must be the same as the noun modified, and the subject pronoun is omitted: <b>šugema piduri čenkirti</b> 'a soldier drinking beer'.
<p>This expression can also be used as an <b>adverbial</b>, usually to indicate a pertinent fact or a recently completed condition. The adverbial endings are added, and the subject must be supplied, if only in pronoun form.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Ir nege šoume izuriwa</font>, mu toe noumači.</b>
<br><font size=2>your daughter ugly being-ADV / with her marry-1s-NEG</font>
<br><i>Your daughter being ugly, I will not marry her.</i>
<p><b><font color="green">Borme kurivatokunoyo</font>, gedigumei wixoumu. </b>
<br><font size=2>mountain having-attained-ADV / elcar-PL seek-1p-PAST</font>
<br><i>Having reached the mountain, we sought the elcari.</i>
</blockquote>
<p>The <b>comparative</b> is a variant of this, using <b>reiluri</b> 'looking at':
<blockquote>
<b>Ti podei <font color="green">tibel reiluri dai</font> zogi!</b>
<br><font size=2>this dog horse looking big is-INT</font>
<br><i>This dog is bigger than a horse!</i>
</blockquote>
<p>There is no explicit superlative, though one can of course say something like <b>esi tibel reiluri dai</b> 'bigger than any horse'.
<p>Reiluri must take an object, but it can be a pronoun (<b>ej reiluri meivu</b> 'richer than you') or a possessive expression:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="green">Ir tuč reiluri šerinou</font> neruweno wedeï ruweu.</b>
<br><font size=2>my that-one looking pretty-n bed-LOC slave want-1s</font>
<br><i>I want a prettier concubine. (Lit., a concubine prettier than mine)</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Examples">Examples</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h3>
</ul>
<h4><a name="ex1">1 / Axunaiš sigadu yutei / The hundred flowers of Axunai</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
One of the imperial Seven Classics (<b>Šeisun uliax</b>) was a collection of poetry, the <i>Hundred Flowers</i>. The empire did not really believe in ongoing development; its impulse in all fields, from engineering to law to poetry, was to sift through previous knowledge and literature and create the definitive volume. The expectation was that future generations could only imitate or reflect on this work, never surpass it. (Thanks to the fall of the empire, this expectation was often fulfilled; it was also self-fulfilling to some extent.)
<p>The modern reader of the <i>Hundred Flowers </i>soon tires of the endless encomiums to long-dead rulers and disbelieved gods. The love poetry is more interesting, and indeed is still read. Love was not a civilized emotion among the Axunemi, whose marriages were dull practical affairs, negotiated between families. Love was seen as a form of madness—indeed, one of the few escapes from duty and community. It was not really honorable behavior, but it was widely believed to be impossible to resist. The following poem (by an unknown author) is typical.
<p>In form it consists of four 14-syllable lines, then two 6-syllable lines; this structure then repeats. Like most Axunašin poems, it was intended to be sung. It was probably not written for a specific melody; there were dozens of melodies for each particular poetic form, and it was the singer's choice which to use.
<p><b>Mu eimi šugeme giwiš muruvo urizun</b>
<a href="#fn1.1"><font color="blue"><sup>1</sup></font></a>
<br><font size=2>with first-f beer boy-GEN form-LOC clumsy</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I am as clumsy as a boy with his first beer</font></i>
<p><b>Ewildeimo ančuvi wiuš muruvo bobi </b>
<br><font size=2>noon-LOC awakened owl-GEN form-LOC dizzy </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">As dizzy as an owl awakened at noon</font></i>
<p><b>En tore rišuri monzi muruvo sunuri </b>
<br><font size=2>at fire looking girl form-LOC dreaming</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">As dreamy as a girl staring into a fire</font></i>
<p><b>Jeno orjibirtiš muruvo gerači zoi </b>
<br><font size=2>forest-LOC hermitGEN form-LOC insane be-1s</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">As mad as a hermit in the woods</font></i>
<blockquote>
<b>Jei id beivivatei? </b>
<br><font size=2>what me abase-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">What has reduced me to this?</font></i>
<p><b>Id nu! Zi mabiou </b>
<br><font size=2>me comfort-IMPER / is love</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Alas, it is love</font></i>
</blockquote>
<p><b>Toiš wei li xurene šone li jeturi bux </b>
<br><font size=2>her eye-PL and black-f hair and laughing mouth</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Her eyes, her black hair, her laughing mouth</font></i>
<p><b>Ir šetie revui jugirtui izutu</b>
<a href="#fn1.2"><font color="blue"><sup>2</sup></font></a>
<br><font size=2>my soul-PL-GEN new-n-PL master-PL be-3p</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">are the new masters of my soul</font></i>
<p><b>Wituvei ruwači tumiwa toiš mouludo</b>
<a href="#fn1.3"><font color="blue"><sup>3</sup></font></a>
<br><font size=2>estate want-1s-NEG rather her softness</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">I would rather have her intimacy than an estate</font></i>
<p><b>Geivemi, ir beivuvi šedudo jerivuzi </b>
<br><font size=2>noble-PL / my abased condition mock-3p-FUT</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Nobles, you will laugh at my abasement</font></i>
<blockquote>
<b>Ti deimu tu deimu </b>
<br><font size=2>this day-LOC that day-LOC</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">But sooner or later</font></i>
<p><b>En muim mabiou</b>
<a href="#fn1.4"><font color="blue"><sup>4</sup></font></a>
<br><font size=2>to you-ACC love</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">It will conquer you too</font></i>
</blockquote>
<font size=-1>
<p><a name="fn1.1"><font color="blue">1</font></a>
<b>Muruvo</b> is literally 'in the shape (of)', generalized to an all-purpose comparative. The first three lines have an understood <b>zoi</b> 'I am'.
<p><a name="fn1.2"><font color="blue">2</font></a>
Literally they are the masters of the author's <i>souls</i>. More on this in the next example.
<p><a name="fn1.3"><font color="blue">3</font></a>
In Axunašin <b>tumiwa</b> 'preferably' is a conjunction; <b>X tumiwa Y ruwači</b> thus means 'I don't want X but rather Y.' A <b>wituvei</b> is the emperor's grant of land to a noble (which thus dates this poem to at least the imperial era); the statement implies the author doesn't have one yet, thus is probably an army officer. <b>Mouludo</b> 'softness' is a poetic euphemism for a woman's body or for lovemaking, and also evokes the <b>mouli</b>, the breasts.
<p><a name="fn1.4"><font color="blue">4</font></a>
This line is an instance of Conjoint Reduction—we can imagine the fuller version <b>Mabiou id makei li en mium</b> 'Love conquered me and you too'.
</font>
<p>
<h4><a name="ex2">2 / Endei Benkeriwiš /
The ways of Benkeriz</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
Benkeriz of Nobiči (d. ~ 1200) was the most noted of the physicians of Axunai. He wrote no books himself; this manual was compiled by his students after his death. It combines medical cases, personal anecdotes and sayings, disquisitions on bodily health and sickness, and a detailed catalog of medicinal herbs.
<p>Axunemi medicine considered the human body to consist of three bodies (water, earth, and wood), and the parallel three spirits (female, male, light). These combined in complicated ways, and the theory considered various imbalances and oppositions between them. For more on Mešaic medical thought, see <a href="meshaism.htm#soul"><i>Almean Belief Systems</i></a>.
<p>More importantly, perhaps, Benkeriz had a good deal of practical experience, and his emphasis was always on correct observation and matching of the symptoms to the patterns of several hundred disorders. Not surprisingly, he was much more successful than physicians who relied entirely on trances and spells, or on theory alone.
<p>The cases in the extract, which the students juxtapose to suggest the very different approaches Benkeriz applied to different symptoms, were very likely a viral infection of the inner ear, and gangrene. In the first case Benkeriz simply ameliorated the symptoms while the body healed itself; in the second he had to act to prevent the rot spreading.
<p><b>Emourun en nulsirti čejiutu Sudauš gume.</b>
<br><font size=2>wise to physician-NOM they-brought Sudau-GEN man-ACC.</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">A man of Sudau was brought to the great physician. </font></i>
<br><font size=2>A couple of things to notice: the preposition appears before the noun <b>nulsirti</b>, not before the entire NP <b>emourun nulsirti</b>; the sick man, as a new referent, appears after the verb.</b>)</font>
<p><b>Benkeriz toe ririšei jideili mu juguvi toe reilei li tek bobušik pejimei naya šemelači li muxidemu šuburi li veturiwa xaluri.</b>
<br><font size=2>Benkeriz him examined as-a-result imbalanced him saw and without faint-INF stood-SUBJ <that incapable and often vomiting and stinkingly breathing</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Benkeriz examined him, finding him to be incoherent, unable to stand without fainting, vomiting frequently, with stinking breath. </font></i>
<br><font size=2>'X saw Y to be <i>condition</i>' is expressed as X <b>mu</b> <i>condition</i> Y <b>reilei</b>. In this case the condition is a fairly complicated conjunction, and most of the conjoints have been moved after the verb. Note that '(un)able to do X' uses a subordinated finite clause, not an infinitive.</font>
<p><b>Benkeriz ran ravaturači toe seirei li mii tomu dei li poudiwa šoučei li gume en nuludo ešendiu.</b>
<br><font size=2>Benkeriz in unmoving him kept and water to-him gave and secondly did-not and man to health returned</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Benkeriz kept him still, gave him water, and did nothing else, and the man recovered. </font></i>
<br><font size=2>(<b>Šoučei</b> 'he didn't do' with no other object is idiomatically equivalent to 'he did nothing'.</b>)</font>
<p><b>Leirališ giw tomu xamei tinaya nul zei peli neju xurenum tedim šedei.</b>
<br><font size=2>Leiral-ish boy-ACC to-him came that> healthy was but foot-LOC black-ACC big-spot-ACC had.</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">A boy from Leiral came to him, healthy but with a large black spot on one foot.</font></i>
<br><font size=2>'He was healthy...' is a subordinate clause (transformation 1); this emphasizes that these facts are given as an amplification of the first sentence.</font>
<p><b>Benkeriz rujidi redweli li yokrinduvi korxu miunšeč en voneč kimei.</b>
<br><font size=2>Benkeriz red harefoil and vinegarated morel-LOC dilution to wound applied</font>
<br><b>Tuč doworavučei jidemu, keixei peliwa, yatei tinaya giwiš neja tetevimietu naya yatei.</b>
<br><font size=2>that-one not-disappeared when, grew contrariwise, boy-GEN foot-ACC they-cut-off-SUBJ <that commanded </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Benkeriz applied red harefoil and vinegarated dilution of morels to the wound; when it did not clear up, but expanded, he commanded the boy's foot to be cut off.</font> </i>
<br><font size=2>The 3p forms function much like our passive—or like our own impersonal 'they': 'they cut his foot off'.</font>
<p><b>Dusunoyo giw en nuludo ešendiu.</b>
<br><font size=2>afterward boy-ACC to health returned</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">After this the boy recovered.</font></i>
<p><b>En Benkeriz ruzenoumu tinaya zenejiu ji ende tinaya Sudauš gume en nuludo ešendenei tek yunmin, peli en giw nulseč šagei or teteveč?</b>
<br><font size=2>to Benkeriz we-asked that> you-knew-INT which way that> Sudau-ish man-ACC to health return-FUT-SUBJ without medicine, but to boy-ACC cure lacked away-from cutting-off </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">We asked Benkeriz, "How did you know so surely that the man of Sudau would heal with no medicine, while there was no cure for the boy except amputation?"</font></i>
<br><font size=2>'Know' in the intensive here means 'know for sure'. <br>Axunašin almost never uses indirect speech. At the same time, there is no guarantee that a speech is reported verbatim. One may rephrase it, but one uses the speaker's context to determine pronouns, tenses, deictic pronouns, and noun case.</font>
<p><b>Ešenšei Benkeriz tinaya gume gumuniš šetiš totoxou šedei louk zimin mii tomu kimiu. </b>
<br><font size=2>replied Benkeriz that> man-ACC male-GEN spirit-GEN surfeit felt <because female water to-him I-applied. </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Benkeriz replied, "The man had an overabundance of male soul, and female water was therefore applied. </font></i>
<p><b>Giwiš voneč miiš gulei li suziš šagou zei, li tidin kie reilačouzi, tijamu dowo nulseč reilačouzi.</b>
<br><font size=2>boy-GEN wound water-GEN wood-GEN and earth-GEN absence was and fourth body you-don't-see therefore no cure you-don't-see </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The boy's wound was a dearth of water, of earth, and of wood; there is no fourth body, and thus no cure."</font></i>
<br><font size=2>'You see X' idiomatically means 'There is X', so of course 'You don't see X' means 'There isn't X.'</font>
<p><b>Ruzenoumu tinaya wenke ti jamuim zezenenei ji ende?</b>
<br><font size=2>we-asked that> someone these matters-ACC learn-FUT-SUBJ which way</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">We asked, how are these things learned?</font></i>
<p><b>Ešenšei Benkeriz tinaya mu sukurudo muxi muelis wenke šašagi mutuči kiyei šetiei li kiminiei gerisagudoi.</b>
<br><font size=2>replied Benkeriz that> with suffering much familiarity someone needs also bodies-GEN spirits-GEN and substances-GEN understanding-AUGM</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">Benkeriz replied, "A great acquaintance with suffering is required, as well as a great understanding of the bodies, the spirits, and the subtances."</font></i>
<p>
<h4><a name="ex3">3 / Xulduri kourazez / The cheating Skourene</a> <font size=-1><a href="#contents">[To Index]</font></a></h4>
This little puzzle comes down to us in multiple forms, and one source even suggests that it originally comes from Wede:i. This version comes from a primer for children from the late imperial era.
<p>To solve it you will want to remember <a href="#Numbers">the digits from 1 to 6 in Axunašin</a>.
<p><b>Kourazez doučeim im rudem ravei, li kaymimei naya ruwu axunez.</b>
<a href="#fn3.1"><font color="blue"><sup>1</sup></font></a>
<br><font size=2>Skourene furs-ACC in offering go-3s-PAST / and buy-3s-PAST-SUBJ <that wish-3s-PAST Axunez </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">A Skourene was offering furs for sale, and an Axunez wished to buy one.</font></i>
<p><b>Kourazez tevikuvi mu boyok gulun damus tomu dei, li en wedeïm loujie dimei naya tomu bugei.</b>
<br><font size=2>Skourene scratched with price wooden board-ACC him-DAT give-3s-PAST / and to slave-ACC money-ACC give-3s-SUBJ-PAST <that him-DAT tell-3s-PAST </font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The Skourene gave him a wooden board with the price scratched on it and told him to pay his slave.</font></i>
<p><b>Axunez ešoyo wimixei tinaya kourazez reim tevikei naya mu boyok palindei.</b>
<br><font size=2>Axunez however find-3s-PAST that> Skourene line-ACC scratch-3s-PAST <that with price add-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The Axunez noticed, however, that by scratching another stroke, the Skourene had increased the price.</font></i>
<p><b>Axunez omu tinaya "Palinun dime reimi palindeviu tijamu poudex loujie wexivie.</b>
<a href="#fn3.2"><font color="blue"><sup>2</sup></font></a>
<br><font size=2>Axunez think-3s-PAST that> additional three line-PL add-1s-FUT therefore> 20 coin-PL remove-1s-FUT</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">The Axunez told himself, "By adding three more scratches, I could pay twenty coins less.</font></i>
<p><b>Demujidimoi! Mu dowo reimi palinun šeis loujie wexivie naya šizenoi."</b>
<br><font size=2>wait-1s-SUBJ / with none line-PL additional seven coin-PL remove-1s-FUT <that can-1s</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">But wait! With no scratches at all, I can save another seven."</font></i>
<p><b>Ji boyok dei?</font></b>
<br><font size=2>which sum give-3s-PAST</font>
<br><i><font color="blue">How much did he pay?</font></i>
<font size=2>
<p><a name="fn3.1"><font color="blue">1</font></a>
Where we use the infinitive ('he wished to buy it') Axunašin uses a finite expression ('he wished that he bought it').
<p><a name="fn3.2"><font color="blue">2</font></a>
Literally "I will add three lines and as a consequence I will remove 20 coins." See transformation 6, the conditional.
</font>
<p>The primer was written by one of those annoying educators who obviously feel that giving answers is a form of coddling. I am however happy to offer the <b>answer</b> <a href="axunlex.htm#ex3ans">here</a>.
<p>
<h3><a href="axunlex.htm">The Lexicon</a></h3>
<hr>
<i>© 2004 by Mark Rosenfelder<br> </i>
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