|
Server : Apache/2.4.62 System : FreeBSD fbsdweb2.web.rcn.net 14.1-RELEASE FreeBSD 14.1-RELEASE releng/14.1-n267679-10e31f0946d8 GENERIC amd64 User : www ( 80) PHP Version : 8.3.8 Disable Function : NONE Directory : /domains/markrose/ |
Upload File : |
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Uyseʔ</TITLE>
<style>
h2
{color:#4635EC;}
h3
{color:#4635EC;}
h4
{color:#4635EC;}
h5
{color:#4635EC;}
h6
{color:#4635EC;}
</style>
</HEAD>
<BODY BGCOLOR="#CEC9F7">
<!-- Map for Languages -->
<MAP NAME="MetaTable">
<AREA COORDS="0,0,119,17" HREF="ethno.htm">
<!-- Color swatches -->
<AREA COORDS="0,18,17,30" HREF="eastern2.html">
<AREA COORDS="18,18,30,30" HREF="native.htm">
<AREA COORDS="31,18,43,30" HREF="verdurian.htm">
<AREA COORDS="44,18,56,30" HREF="ismain.htm">
<AREA COORDS="57,18,69,30" HREF="bara.htm">
<AREA COORDS="70,18,82,30" HREF="cuezi.htm">
<AREA COORDS="83,18,95,30" HREF="naviu.htm">
<AREA COORDS="96,18,108,30" HREF="axunashin.htm">
<AREA COORDS="109,18,121,30" HREF="xurnash.htm">
<AREA COORDS="122,18,134,30" HREF="chia.htm">
<AREA COORDS="135,18,147,30" HREF="kebreni.htm">
<AREA COORDS="148,18,160,30" HREF="wedei.html">
<AREA COORDS="161,18,173,30" HREF="dhekh.htm">
<AREA COORDS="174,18,186,30" HREF="lenani.htm">
<AREA COORDS="187,18,199,30" HREF="western.htm">
<AREA COORDS="200,18,212,30" HREF="Uyse7.htm">
<AREA COORDS="213,18,225,30" HREF="Le.htm">
<AREA COORDS="226,18,238,30" HREF="elkaril.htm">
<AREA COORDS="239,18,252,30" HREF="flaidish.htm">
<!-- Intragroup nav -->
<AREA COORDS="126,0,198,17" HREF="kebreni.htm">
<AREA COORDS="199,0,264,17" HREF="wedei.html">
<AREA COORDS="266,0,358,17" HREF="lenani.htm">
<AREA COORDS="360,0,410,17" HREF="Uyse7.htm">
<AREA COORDS="411,0,438,17" HREF="Le.htm">
</map>
<!-- VV nav bar -->
<table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr bgcolor="#007000"><td colspan=7 height="5">
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><td colspan=7 height="5">
<tr bgcolor="#007000">
<td width="20">
<td width="203" height="50" valign="middle"><a href="virtuver.htm"><img src="illo/vvbase.gif" alt="Virtual Verduria" width="201" height="16" border="0"></a>
<td width="77" align="center" valign="middle"><img src="illo/vvcrown.gif" width="36" height="21">
<td valign="middle" align="left">
<img src="illo/vv-logos-other.gif" title="Language pages" width="443" height="36" usemap="#MetaTable" border="0">
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><td colspan=7 height="5">
<tr bgcolor="#007000"><td colspan=7 height="5">
</table>
<H1><img src="lb-uyse7.gif" align="absmiddle"> Uyseʔ</H1>
<i>© 2010 by Mark Rosenfelder · <A HREF="default.html">zompist.com</a></i>
<!-- Table of Contents -->
<hr/>
<p><a href="#Phonology">Phonology</a> — <i> <a href="#Consonants">Consonants</a> — <a href="#Vowels">Vowels</a> — <a href="#Phonotactics">Phonotactics</a> — <a href="#Stress">Stress</a>
</i>
<br/><a href="#Overall">Overall structure</a>
<br/><a href="#Pronouns">Pronouns</a> — <i> <a href="#Personal">Personal pronouns</a> — <a href="#Demonstratives">Demonstratives</a> —
<a href="#Quantifiers">Quantifiers and numerals</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Nouns">Nouns</a> <i> — <a href="#noun-verbs">Nouns and noun-verbs</a> — <a href="#Plurals">Plurals</a> — <a href="#Compounds">Compounds</a> — <a href="#NP">NP order</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Verbs">Verbs</a> — <i> <a href="#Basic">Basic sentence order</a> — <a href="#Passive">Passive by omission</a> — <a href="#Negation">Negation</a> — <a href="#Aspectual">Aspectual particles</a> — <a href="#Modal">Modal particles</a> — <a href="#Imperatives">Imperatives</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Adjectives">Adjectives</a>
<br/><a href="#transformations">Some transformations</a> — <i>
<a href="#Questions">Questions</a> — <a href="#Doubled">Doubled verbs</a> — <a href="#Ongoing">Ongoing action</a> — <a href="#Locative">Locative verbs</a> — <a href="#modifying">Locatives modifying nouns</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Complex">Complex sentences</a> — <i> <a href="#Subordination">Subordination</a> — <a href="#saying">Verbs of saying and thinking</a> — <a href="#Causatives">Causatives</a> — <a href="#Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a> — <a href="#Comparatives">Comparatives</a> — <a href="#Superlatives">Superlatives</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Pragmatic">Pragmatic particles</a>
<br/><a href="#calendar">The calendar</a> — <i>
<a href="#day">The day</a> — <a href="#year">The year</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Sample">Sample texts</a> — <i> <a href="#Conversation">Conversation</a> — <a href="#poem">A poem</a> — <a href="#Powers">The care of Powers</a> — <a href="#Nyekhen">The quotable Nyekhen</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Lexicon">Lexicon</a>
<br/><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Uyse7-Logograms.pdf">Writing</a>
</p>
<hr/>
<h2><a name="Introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<img src="Uytai.jpg" align="right" border=1>
<b>Uyseʔ</b> is the language of <b><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Uytai">Uytai</a></b>, the largest and most populous state in Arcél and the center of the temperate-zone civilization. The other Uyseʔic states— <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Nyandai">Nyandai</a>, <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Siad%20%CE%B2o">Siad βo</a>, <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Hl%C3%BCim">Hlüim</a>— speak related languages, and they and the neighboring language families have heavily borrowed from Uyseʔ. The Uytainese syllabographic writing system is the ultimate source of all Arcélian writing (before the colonization of <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Fananak">Fananak</a>).
<p>At the risk of offending Uytainese readers, it can’t be said that Uytai is the most advanced nation in southern Arcél; it tends to be conservative and somewhat xenophobic, and Nyandai has long been the leader in technology and finance, as well as interaction with foreign cultures (northern or Ereláean). However, Uytai has a much larger population (and thus considerable wealth and military clout) and dominates in literature, religion, and philosophy.
<p>Uyseʔ has borrowed technical terms from Nyanese, though since this is done via writing, the syllables appear in their Uyseʔ form. E.g. <i>tordzew </i>‘interest’ was borrowed as <b>turstil</b>. Words from unrelated languages are of course borrowed phonetically— e.g. <b>Tsaʔ</b> ‘the Itseʔ river’, <b>Khepri</b><i> </i>‘Kebri’, <b>Fertur</b><i> </i>‘Verduria’.
<p>This sketch describes the contemporary standard Uyseʔ of the capital, <b><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?Srethun">Srethun</a></b>. There are significant dialectal differences, as well as important differences from early written Uyseʔ, about 2500 years ago.
<p>Despite these differences, the Uyseʔ <b>writing system</b> binds together the Uyseʔic nations, all of which consider themselves to share one language. Even the Nyanese, who have the strongest independent culture, essentially use the Uyseʔ writing system without local modifications (beyond some local lexemes), and largely use Uyseʔ syntax when writing. This contrasts with the <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/almeo.html?B%C3%A9">Beic</a> nations which have each derived their own writing systems.
<p>(The writing system is described in <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Uyse7-Logograms.pdf">a separate document</a>.)
<h2><a name="Phonology">Phonology</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Consonants">Consonants</a></h3>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td></td>
<td><i>labial</i></td>
<td><i>dental</i></td>
<td><i>palatal</i></td>
<td><i>velar</i></td>
<td><i>pharyngeal</i></td>
<td><i>glottal</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>stops</i></td>
<td>p<br>ph</td>
<td>t<br>th</td>
<td></td>
<td>k
<br>kh</td>
<td></td>
<td>ʔ</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>affricates</i></td>
<td></td>
<td>ts</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>fricatives</i></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>s</td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>ħ</td>
<td>h</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>liquids</i></td>
<td></td>
<td>l</td>
<td>r</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>nasals</i></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>n</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>approximants</i></td>
<td>w</td>
<td></td>
<td>y</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<br>The important distinction between stops is aspiration, not voicing. E.g <b>phwai</b><i> </i>‘auspicious’ is pronounced [p<font size=1><sup>h</sup></font>waj]. The aspiration is much stronger than in English, more like Mandarin. The Siadese and Hlüim are notable for turning these into fricatives, but this is never correct in Uytai. Intervocalic stops are often voiced in Siadese and Nyanese.
<p><b>H</b> should be pronounced strongly; especially word-initially, it may approach [x].
<p><b>Ħ</b> is a pharyngeal fricative, as in Arabic. In the sister languages it’s generally a velar fricative.
<p><b>R</b> is a rolled post-alveolar fricative, like Czech ř.
<p>Most consonants can be followed by <b>y</b>, which palatalizes them to varying degrees.
<h3><a name="Vowels">Vowels</a></h3>
The vowels are <b>i e a o u</b>.
<p>Any vowel can diphthongize with <b>w</b> or <b>y</b>, but I write <b>ai au</b> instead of ay aw; this reflects a difference in sound (the a is lenghtened) and a distinctive treatment in the writing system (final -<b>w</b> and -<b>y</b> are sometimes ignored when assigning phonetics or writing rhyming poetry, but <b>ai au</b> can never rhyme with <b>a</b>).
<p>Vowels are laxed before a final consonant; but they have their full value before liquids:
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr><td><b>swi</b> </td><td>/swi/ </td><td>‘sing’ </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>swiʔ</b> </td><td>/swɪʔ/ </td><td> ‘sea’</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>swir </b></td><td>/swir/ </td><td>‘wax’</td></tr>
<tr><td> </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>pho </b> </td><td>/p<font size=1><sup>h</sup></font>o/ </td><td>‘river valley’ </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>phot</b> </td><td>/p<font size=1><sup>h</sup></font>ɔt/ </td><td>‘stink’ </td></tr>
<tr><td><b>phor</b> </td><td>/p<font size=1><sup>h</sup></font>or/ </td><td>‘put together’</td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</a></h3>
The formula for a syllable is:
<blockquote>
C+(r,l,w,y)+V+(w,y)+(ʔ,m,n,l,r,t).
</blockquote>
As <b>t</b> can end syllables, words like <b>Srethun</b> are ambiguous in my transcription: sret-hun or sre-thun? This is not actually a problem since <b>t + h</b> is pronounced <b>th</b>.
<p>In compounds <b>l + r → r, m + n → nn</b>. This is not indicated in the transcription, except in the word <b>hreram</b> ‘priest’ where the etymological connection to <b>hrel</b> ‘instruct’ is not reflected in the writing system.
<p>Vowels almost never begin a word, though <b>ʔ </b>can. <b>U</b> is an exception (<b>un </b>‘give’, <b>uy </b>‘ancestor’), but this derives from <i>wu- </i>which is not otherwise attested.
<h3><a name="Stress">Stress</a></h3>
Stress is typically on the last syllable: <b>notséʔ, Uytái, Srethún</b>. The exception is semantically vague finals like -<b>ram</b> ‘person’, or the adjectivizers -<b>ne</b> and -<b>ar</b>: <b>páuram, hrétne, Syalénar</b>.
<h2><a name="Overall">Overall structure</a></h2>
Uyseʔ is <b>isolating</b>, meaning that its morphemes are mostly single syllables and there is no inflectional morphology. Many sentences will consist entirely of single-syllable words:
<blockquote>
<b>Kwar hwim phwaun tswai tsor sun frey syal.
<br></b>you.resp wish bear hunt must fast foot have
<br><i>If you want to hunt bears, you must have quick feet.
</blockquote>
</i>However, this doesn’t mean that there are no compounds; there are plenty. (The writing system does not distinguish compounds from syntactic phrases; in native sources <b>nwai</b><i> </i>is the basic term for a unit of speech and also a glyph in the writing system, comparable to Mandarin <i>z</i><i>ì</i>, while <b>hoy</b><i> </i>serves for both compounds and phrases, like Mandarin <i>cí</i>. There’s no term for what we would understand as a ‘word’.)
<p>Most morphemes are independent, but some are bound— either they only appear in compounds (e.g. the <b>hin</b><i> </i>in <b>hinnar, hintser</b><i> </i>‘because of that, because of this’) or they attach so closely to another word that interpolations are highly restricted, e.g. perfective <b>yu</b>-, negative -<b>en</b>.
<p>A very few words are multisyllabic; e.g. <b>hwehew</b><i> </i>‘shiver’, <i>keke </i>‘frequently’, <b>notseʔ</b> ‘notseh cow’. Some of these derive from reduplication; others may be borrowings. Many foreign names are of course multisyllabic (e.g. <b>Fertur</b><i> </i>for Verduria), but there’s a strong tendency to limit them to two syllables.
<p>A very small number of words are formed by fusion: e.g. <b>ħ</b><b>wiyt</b><i> </i>‘want to but be prevented’ = <b>ħ</b><b>wim</b><i> </i>‘want’ <i>+ </i><b>net</b> ‘must not’. The frequent -<b>r</b> in the pronouns derives from <b>ar</b> or a lost element: cf. <b>na</b><i> </i>‘that’, <b>nar</b><i> </i>‘that one’.
<h2><a name="Pronouns">Pronouns</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Personal">Personal pronouns</a></h3>
The Uyseʔic languages are known for variation in the pronoun system; each region has its own set, and the pronouns vary over time as well. This section describes those of standard Uyseʔ.
<p>It’s best to think of the personal pronouns as required. Uyseʔ values brevity; the pronouns can be omitted in certain phrases, giving an aphoristic air. But knowing when to do this is something of an art. (One safe place to omit them: several repeated sentences all with the same subject.)
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#A8A2DD"><td colspan=5><b><i>Nominal form</b></i></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td></td>
<td><i>familiar</i></td>
<td><i>respectful</i></td>
<td><i>Literary</i></td>
<td><i>Court</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>I</i></td>
<td><b>ħu</b></td>
<td><b>pyey</b></td>
<td><b>pyey</b></td>
<td><b>tse thal</b></td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>you</i></td>
<td><b>the</b></td>
<td><b>kwar</b></td>
<td><b>koykwar</b></td>
<td><b>syai ħwen</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>he</i></td>
<td><b>ʔu</b></td>
<td><b>thrau</b></td>
<td><b>nawar</b></td>
<td><b>syai nawar</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>she</i></td>
<td><b>sil</b></td>
<td><b>khro</b></td>
<td><b>nalai</b></td>
<td><b>syai nalai</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A8A2DD"><td colspan=5><b><i>Adjective form</b></i></td></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td></td>
<td><i>familiar</i></td>
<td><i>respectful</i></td>
<td><i>Literary</i></td>
<td><i>Court</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>my</i></td>
<td><b>poy</b></td>
<td><b>poy</b></td>
<td><b>tsene</b></td>
<td><b>tse thal nye</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>your</i></td>
<td><b>fur</b></td>
<td><b>koy</b></td>
<td><b>koyne</b></td>
<td><b>syai ħwen nye</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>his</i></td>
<td><b>yo</b></td>
<td><b>thoy</b></td>
<td><b>nane</b></td>
<td><b>syai nawar nye</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><i>her</i></td>
<td><b>yeʔ</b></td>
<td><b>khroy</b></td>
<td><b>nalaine</b></td>
<td><b>syai nalai nye</b></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<br>The <b>familiar</b> and <b>respectful</b> forms are used in speech; the distinction is similar to that of <i>tu/vous </i>in French. (The respectful forms are the most unmarked, and are thus used in most of the examples in this grammar, but in colloquial speech the familiar forms are more common.)
<p>The general rule for ‘I’ is to use <b>pyey</b><i> </i>when speaking to anyone you’re on <b>kwar</b><i> </i>terms with. That is, one does not use asymmetric forms in standard Uyseʔ.
<p>The <b>literary</b> forms are used in writing as well as in some very formal speech registers (such as religious or legal rituals). They’re a remnant of an earlier pronoun system.
<p>The <b>court</b> forms are used to refer formally to royals, nobles, and high officials; these do not preclude the use of titles or grander forms, which is a study in itself. References to commoners use the respectful or literary forms depending on whether one is speaking or writing.
<p>The <b>plural</b> for the familiar and respectful forms is formed by prefixing <b>tul</b>- (note <b>tul</b><i> + </i><b>ʔu</b><i> → </i><b>tulu</b>). However, this is required only for the third person.
<p>When used, <b>tulpyey</b><i> </i>‘we’ generally excludes the listener; <b>pyey kwar</b><i> </i>(or familiar <b>ħu</b><i> </i><b>the</b>) ‘you and I’ is preferred for an inclusive ‘we’.
<p>The 3rd person pronouns should only be used for <b>animates</b> (including institutions or regions conceived as actors, as well as heavenly bodies); for inanimate things use the demonstratives.
<h3><a name="Demonstratives">Demonstratives</a></h3>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td>this (adj)</td>
<td><b>tse</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>this (n)</td>
<td><b>tser</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>that (adj)</td>
<td><b>na</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>that (n)</td>
<td><b>nar</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>then</td>
<td><b>nawal</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>there</td>
<td><b>nahun</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>now</td>
<td><b>hit</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>here</td>
<td><b>mwel</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>that idea</td>
<td><b>syer</b></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
The adjectival forms precede their nouns: <b><font color="#008000">tse</b></font><b> saur </b>‘this fish’. They precede adjectives or quantifiers (<b><font color="#008000">tse</b></font><b> swol lin saur</b> ‘these three happy fish’), but follow subordinate phrases or postpositional phrases (<b>myar min ar <font color="#008000">tse</b></font><b> saur</b> ‘this fish the cat caught’).
<p><b>Syer</b> stands for a whole clause:
<blockquote>
<b>ʔarkhel wir he lye? Pyey <font color="#008000">syer</font> khlar.
<br></b>world round be Q / I that.idea believe.not
<br><i>The world is round? I don’t believe it.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Quantifiers">Quantifiers and numerals</a></h3>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td>none</td>
<td><b>rauʔ</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>some</td>
<td><b>lyut</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>many, much</td>
<td><b>pwit</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>most</td>
<td><b>twer</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>every</td>
<td><b>ʔar</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td><b></b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>other</td>
<td><b>wau</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>such</td>
<td><b>mautne</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td><b></b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>1</td>
<td><b>or</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>2</td>
<td><b>nre</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>3</td>
<td><b>swol</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>4</td>
<td><b>tswar</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>5</td>
<td><b>phun</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>6</td>
<td><b>het</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>7</td>
<td><b>swolpret</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>8</td>
<td><b>nrepret</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>9</td>
<td><b>orpret</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>10</td>
<td><b>pret</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>11</td>
<td><b>ortsum</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>12</td>
<td><b>tsum</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>13</td>
<td><b>phunħot</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>14</td>
<td><b>tswarħot</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>15</td>
<td><b>swolħot</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>16</td>
<td><b>nreħot</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>17</td>
<td><b>orħot</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>18</td>
<td><b>ħot</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>324</td>
<td><b>thwau</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>5832</td>
<td><b>nrit</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>104,976</td>
<td><b>hrowt</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>1,889,568</td>
<td><b>tswa</b></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<b>Quantifiers</b> and <b>numerals</b> follow the same basic rules:
<ul>
<li>They can directly modify a NP: <b>lyut ram</b> ‘some people’, <b>tswar tsiʔ</b> ‘four cities’, <b>or ħunne ram </b>‘one indecent person’.
<br><li>They can be used alone with an implied head <b>ram </b>‘people’: <b>rauʔ </b>‘no one’; <b>tswar </b>‘four people’. To refer to things other than people, <b>proy </b>‘thing’ can be used (<b>lyut proy</b> ‘some thing’), but it’s preferred to use a narrower noun (<b>lyut trem </b>‘some merchandise’).
<br><li><b>Khim</b> can be used to replace a previous referent: <b>ʔar khim </b>‘all of them’, <b>het khim </b>‘six of those’.
<br><li>They can be used for time and place expressions using <b>hun </b>‘place’ and <b>nur </b>‘day’; but see <i>Locatives</i> and <i>Time Expressions</i> below.
<br><li>They can follow a demonstrative: <b>tse lyut uy </b>‘these few ancestors’.
<br><li><b>Ordinals</b> can be formed with <b>thin </b>‘instance’, e.g. <b>swol thin lyat </b>‘the third rifter’. With quantifiers, this means that the referents are viewed as an ordered series rather than a set: compare <b>lyut pham </b>‘some books’ with <b>lyut thin pham </b>‘some of the books in this row or series’.
<br><li><b>Fractions</b> are formed with <b>tyun </b>‘part’: <b>swol tyun</b> ‘one third’. With quantifiers, this means that the referent is viewed as a mass and we’re talking about some portion of it: <b>lyut tyun tsiʔ </b>‘some part of the city’, <b>twer tyun khet </b>‘most of the pie’. There’s one suppletive form, <b>tsaun</b> ‘half’.
<br><li><b>Multiplicatives</b> are formed with <b>ler</b>: <b>swol ler</b> ‘threefold’, <b>pwit ler</b> ‘many times over’.
<br>
</ul>
Though <b>lyut </b>can be used as an <b>indefinite</b> reference (‘someone’), it’s commoner just to omit the argument: <b>Hlau</b>, ‘Someone’s coming’; <b>Poy myet yukwey</b> ‘Someone ate my tofu’.
<p><b>Numbers</b> can be used in a few more ways:
<ul>
<li>The numerical system is <b>octodecimal</b>, based on the 18 fingers and toes of Almeans. Units without a single-syllable name are, as shown above, formed by the formula U-X where X is the next higher number with such a name, and U is the unit to subtract from it: e.g. 11 = <b>ortsum</b> = <b>tsum</b> (12) minus one (<b>or</b>).
<br><li>The powers of 18 are shown in the chart. Multiples are formed with the formula P-U where P is the power of 18 and U is the multiplier: <b>ħotnr</b>e 36, <b>ħotphun </b>18*5 = 90 , <b>nritswolpret</b> 5832*7 = 40824, etc.
<br><li>Such numbers can then be <b>concatenated</b>, lower to higher. The present year in Uytainese reckoning is 2496. This is 12 + 18*12 + 324*7 = <b>tsum ħottsum thwauswolpret</b>.
<br><li>Numbers can also be concatenated with <b>lyut </b>‘some’, implying a small quantity more. E.g. <b>lyut nre lai</b> ‘two or more girls’, <b>lyut ħothet khur </b>‘sixty-odd oxen’.<b>
<br></b><li><b>Addition</b> can be explicitly indicated by <b>ken</b>: <b>nre ken nre </b>= 2 + 2.<b>
<br></b><li><b>Multiplication</b> is indicated by <b>ler</b>: <b>phun ler twar</b> = 5 * 4.
<br><li><b>Exponentiation</b> follows the formula <b>tsalwor </b><i>base</i><b> wot </b><i>exponent</i>: <b>Tsalwor pret wot swol </b>= 10 ^ 3.<b> </b>If the base is 18, however, the formula <b>mwat </b><i>exponent</i> can be used. Thus <b>tswa </b>(18<font size=1><sup>5</sup></font>)<b> </b>can also be written <b>mwat phun</b>, literally ‘great five’.
<br><li><b>Distribution</b> uses the formula <i>(beneficiary or time period) </i><b>keʔ </b><i>(number) (NP)</i>, e.g. <b>nur keʔ or meʔ</b> ‘one pill a day’.
<br>
</ul>
<h2><a name="Nouns">Nouns</a></h2>
<h3><a name="noun-verbs">Nouns and noun-verbs</a></h3>
A large number of words can serve equally as nouns or as verbs (like English ‘love’). They are identified in the lexicon as NV <b>noun-verbs</b>; to save space the separate English noun form is omitted— e.g. <b>froy </b>is glossed as ‘know’ though it also means ‘knowledge’. It’s fair to say that the Uytainese conceptualize these as actions: <b>Froy pur he </b>‘knowledge is good’ could equally be glossed ‘To know is good’.
<p>There are also <b>pure nouns</b>. All derived nouns fit in this category, but also many bare roots. These cannot be used in verbal slots, even if we do so in English— e.g <b>hlim </b>‘ship’. Verbs can be formed by derivation, of course, e.g. <b>hlimnir </b>‘send by ship’. Pure nouns are conceptualized as things.
<p>About the only <b>true verb</b> in the language is <b>he </b>‘be (predicative)’. The state of being, i.e. existing, is expressed with the noun-verb <b>preʔ </b>‘be (existential)’.
<h3><a name="Plurals">Plurals</a></h3>
Nouns referring to people can be pluralized with <b>tul</b>-: <b>tulhyor </b>‘fathers’; <b>tulhyaulu</b> ‘the headmen’. This is never obligatory, and isn’t allowed at all with other referents, including animals.
<p>Plurality can be explicitly indicated with the quantifiers, in which case <b>tul- </b>is not used: <b>ʔar hyor</b> ‘all fathers’.
<h3><a name="Compounds">Compounds</a></h3>
Compounds are not evident as such from the Uyseʔ writing system, but can be identified because no other material can be interpolated between the elements.
<p>Compounds fall into a few patterns:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td colspan=2><b><i>Adjective + noun:</b></i></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>Hentwor</b></td>
<td>shining glory</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ħunlai</b></td>
<td>indecent girl = prostitute</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Hurtso</b></td>
<td>green river</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Khartsiʔ</b></td>
<td>new town</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Mwatwor</b></td>
<td>great lord</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Pursut</b></td>
<td>good fate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ʔarkhel</b></td>
<td>all corners = Almea</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td colspan=2><b><i>Noun + noun:</b></i></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>hretram</b></td>
<td>power man = magician</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>swirħat</b></td>
<td>wax stick = candle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Themtai</b></td>
<td>iliu land = Ťrim</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>thunswiʔ</b></td>
<td>mountain sea = rift valley</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Tsopwan</b></td>
<td>river bend</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Uytai</b></td>
<td>ancestor land</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>worso</b></td>
<td>lord house = mansion</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>theʔthan</b></td>
<td>hand fight = martial arts</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td colspan=2><b><i>Verb + object</b></i> (including locative + object)</td></tr>
<tr><td><b>fatħel</b></td>
<td>behind door</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>twuntai</b></td>
<td>out land = exile</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hyausyan</b></td>
<td>top + mother = grandmother</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nrewnsye</b></td>
<td>without + guts = coward</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Funuy</b></td>
<td>sacrifice to ancestors</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>fyenhar</b></td>
<td>prepare-man (type of rite)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ħanphor</b></td>
<td>make ford</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>khulhwai</b></td>
<td>become woman </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>krimħun</b></td>
<td>bring immorality = seduce</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>loyhret</b></td>
<td>serve power = magic</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Paukhel</b></td>
<td>rule world </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pauram</b></td>
<td>speak.for ancestors = king</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hluʔtsrat</b></td>
<td>treat evil = abuse</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td colspan=2><b><i>Verb + subject</b></i></td></tr>
<tr><td><b>loylai</b></td>
<td>serve girl</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Uykhrai</b></td>
<td>ancestor bless</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
With the excepton of a few names, the last pattern is limited to a few common nouns.
<p>Some common <b>derivational patterns</b> for nouns:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>-ne</b></td>
<td>adjectivizer for pure nouns</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-fen</b></td>
<td>state or condition</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-wal</b></td>
<td>period of time</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-ram</b></td>
<td>person</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-so</b></td>
<td>building, place</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-ħin</b></td>
<td>device</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nrul-</b></td>
<td>study</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tsu-</b></td>
<td>diminutive</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pwit-</b></td>
<td>many, much</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h3><a name="NP">NP order</a></h3>
Uyseʔ is consistently head-final. Thus, demonstratives, quantifiers, adjectives, and relative clauses precede the noun:
<blockquote>
<b>na hwai</b> <i>that woman</i>
<br><b>lyut hwai</b> <i>several women</i>
<br><b>or pur hwai</b> <i>one good woman</i>
<br><b>kroy froy ar hwai</b> <i>the woman who knows the sword</i>
<br><b>Uykhrai twun hwai</b> <i>the woman from Uykhrai</i>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Verbs">Verbs</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Basic">Basic sentence order</a></h3>
Unmarked word order is SOV:
<blockquote>
<b>Run ħrot yukwey.</b></b>
<br>dog mouse PAST-eat
<br><i>The dog ate the mouse.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
The normal location for adverbs is after the subject and object, before the verb:
<blockquote>
<b>Pauram <font color="#008000">siʔ</font> yulyew.</b>
<br>king sudden PAST-flee
<br><i>The king immediately fled.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Pyey myet <font color="#008000">phernur</font> kwey!</b>
<br>I.resp ko.tofu yesterday eat
<br><i>We ate tofu yesterday!</i>
<br>
<br><b>Pyey <font color="#008000">mwel</font> ħon!</b>
<br>I.resp here stay
<br><i>Here I stay.</i>
</blockquote>
As we’ll see later, this goes for adverbials and postpositional phrases as well.
<p>Any constituent (NP or AdvP) can be <b>topicalized</b> by fronting it and marking with <b>sru:</b>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Ħrot sru</font> run yukwey. </b>
<br>mouse TOPIC dog PAST-eat
<br><i>The mouse was eaten by the dog.</i>
<br>
<br><b><font color="#008000">Phernur sru</font> sut so yuthu.</b>
<br>yesterday TOPIC fate house PAST-in
<br><i>Yesterday fate entered my home.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
A <b>vocative</b> is marked with the particle <b>a</b>, and is normally fronted. In speech, vocatives are very common, especially speaking to superiors.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Ritram a</font>, pyey na ʔar nwai sraut.</b>
<br>teacher VOC / I.resp that every word forget
<br><i>Teacher, I’ve forgotten all those words.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
If the vocative is also the subject, the subject need not be repeated.
<p><b>Existential</b> verbs, or those denoting an appearance or disappearance, come first:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Preʔ</font> tsiʔ. <font color="#008000">Twey</font> pauram.</b>
<br>exist city / not.exist king
<br><i>There is a city. There’s no king. </i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Passive">Passive by omission</a></h3>
If an argument of a transitive verb is omitted, the meaning is passive:
<blockquote>
<b>Photram pauram yukhyuʔ.</b>
<br>barbarian king PAST-defeat
<br><i>The barbarians defeated the king.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Pauram yukhyuʔ.</b>
<br>king PAST-defeat
<br><i>The king was defeated.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
We can do this with some verbs (“The ball broke the window / The window broke”), but it’s a general feature of Uyseʔ.
<p>(To be precise— there are other reasons a subject may be omitted in Uyseʔ, such as it being already given in the immediate context.)
<p>Verbs with an optional object are trickier; the general rule is that animate referents are taken as subjects, others as objects.
<blockquote>
<b>Feyram sluʔ fruʔ.</b>
<br>peasant pell.beer drink
<br><i>The peasant is drinking beer.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Feyram fruʔ.</b>
<br><i>The peasant is drinking.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Sluʔ fruʔ.</b>
<br><i>The beer was drunk.</i>
</blockquote>
There’s no equivalent of our ‘by’ clause that restores the subject to a passive; but topicalization can be used instead:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Sluʔ sru</font> feyram yufruʔ.</b>
<br><i>The beer was drunk by the peasant.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Negation">Negation</a></h3>
A verb is negated with -<b>en</b> (or -<b>ʔen</b> after a vowel: <b>thet</b> ‘make’ → <b>theten</b> ‘doesn’t make’, <b>pau </b>‘rule’ → <b>pauʔen </b>‘doesn’t rule’. But some verbs have dedicated negatives, e.g. <b>twey</b> ‘not exist’, <b>phim</b> ‘not want’, <b>khlar</b> ‘not believe’.
<p>A negated verb can be used as a noun: <b>Froyʔen khowm </b>‘Not-knowing is bad’. <i> </i>
<h3><a name="Aspectual">Aspectual particles</a></h3>
Uyseʔ does not modify verbs for tense, but has a rich set of aspectual particles, which precede the verb.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>yu-</b></td>
<td>change of state, perfective</td>
<td><b>Khro lyot <font color="#008000">yu</b></font><b>prow.</b>
<br><i>She already made you dinner.</i>
<br><b>Pyey pham <font color="#008000">yu</b></font><b>nron.</b>
<br><i>I finished reading the book.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>khuy</b></td>
<td>change of state (internal)</td>
<td><b>Kwar har hit <font color="#008000">khuy</b></font><b> he.</b>
<br><i>You’re a man now.</i>
<br><b>Tyut <font color="#008000">khuy</b></font><b> rewm.</b>
<br><i>The boy got lost.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>ħwer</b></td>
<td>beginning, inchoative</td>
<td><b>Khro <font color="#008000">ħ</b></font><b><font color="#008000">wer</b></font><b> swi.</b>
<br><i>She started to sing.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sor</b></td>
<td>event experienced at least once</td>
<td><b>Pyey thluy <font color="#008000">sor</b></font><b> kwey.</b>
<br><i>I‘ve had squid. </i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td ><b>nrau-</b></td>
<td>done a little; tried; softens imperatives</td>
<td><b>Pyey leyseʔ <font color="#008000">nrau</b></font><b>seʔ.</b>
<br><i>I speak a little Lé.</i>
<br><b>Tulpyey <font color="#008000">nrau</b></font><b>tsyofruʔ.</b><i>
<br>We’ll be doing some drinking.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>lyoy</b></td>
<td>did occasionally (more than once, not habitually)</td>
<td><b>Kwar Phettai thu <font color="#008000">lyoy</font> friw.</b>
<br>you.resp Phetai in occasionally travel
<br><i>You’ve been to Phetai a few times.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>keke</b></td>
<td>do frequently</td>
<td><b>Hwai <font color="#008000">keke</font> nron ar tsam hrol tsun?</b>
<br>woman frequently read SUB matter normal Q
<br><i>Is it normal for a woman to read so much?</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kew</b></td>
<td>do at intervals</td>
<td><b>Tyut <font color="#008000">kew</font>kheʔ.</b>
<br>young,boy AT.INTERVALS cough
<br><i>The boy would cough now and then.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>prum</b> </td>
<td>did so far, got as far as</td>
<td><b>Tulpyey hyutpham <font color="#008000">prum</font> ħruy.</b>
<br>PL-I.resp manuscript AS.FAR.AS write
<br><i>We got as far as writing the manuscript.</i></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Some of the English glosses use the past tense, but this isn’t present in the Uyseʔ— cf. <b>Pyey pham wennur yunron</b> ‘I’ll finish reading the book tomorrow’.
<p><b>Yu</b>- and <b>khuy</b> both indicate a change of state, but the latter implies that the change proceeds from within. Compare the example with <b>Kwar har hit yuhe </b>‘You’ve been made a man’. <b> Khuy </b>isn’t used with transitives with an explicit subject; when used with passives, as in the second example, it makes the meaning reflexive—the implication is that the boy being lost is his own fault.<i></i>
<p>The aspect particles (except for <b>yu- </b>and <b>nrau-</b>) can be separately negated or modified. Compare:
<blockquote>
<b>Hwai keke<font color="#008000">ʔen</font> kwey.</b>
<br>woman FREQUENTLY-NOT eat
<br><i>The woman eats not-frequently (i.e. she eats infrequently).</i>
<br><b>Hwai keke kwey<font color="#008000">en</font>.</b>
<br>woman FREQUENTLY eat-NOT
<br><i>The woman not-eats frequently (i.e. she often fails to eat).</i>
<br>
<br><b>Khro ħwer <font color="#008000">ruy</font> swi.</b>
<br>she.resp begin good sing
<br><i>She began to sing well.</i>
<br><b>Khro <font color="#008000">ruy</font> ħwer swi.</b>
<br>she.resp good begin sing
<br><i>She well-began to sing (idiomatically: she finally started singing).</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
Note the very useful <b>soren </b>‘not even once, never’.
<p>With <b>yu- </b>negation can be said to apply chiefly to the perfective: <b>Pyey pham <font color="#008000">yu</font>nron<font color="#008000">en</font></b> just says that I didn’t finish reading the book; it doesn’t deny that I read some of it. <b>Nrau</b>- is similar: <b>Pyey pham <font color="#008000">nrau</font> nron<font color="#008000">en</font></b>says that I didn’t read a little— i.e. I didn’t even start, I didn’t give it a try.
<h3><a name="Modal">Modal particles</a></h3>
There is also a wide range of modal particles:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>mur</b></td>
<td>can (is able to)</td>
<td><b>Tulpyey <font color="#008000">mur</font> senruy.</b>
<br><i>We can work it out.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kwor</b></td>
<td>should (in speaker’s estimation)</td>
<td><b>Kwar tur <font color="#008000">kwor</font> un.</b>
<br><i>You should return the jewel.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>siw</b></td>
<td>should (in actor’s estimation); feels obliged to</td>
<td><b>Khro <font color="#008000">siw</font> lyew.</b>
<br><i>She felt she had to flee.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tsor</b></td>
<td>must (in speaker’s estimation)</td>
<td><b>Wor <font color="#008000">tsor</font> twuntai.</b>
<br><i>The lord must be exiled.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>fyaul</b></td>
<td>must (by external obligation; speaker is neutral)</td>
<td><b>Lai <font color="#008000">fyaul</font> wimhar.</b>
<br><i>The girl was forced to marry.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>net</b></td>
<td>must not</td>
<td><b>Kwar ħrel <font color="#008000">net</font> tsimseʔ.</b>
<br><i>You must not mention the war.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>fuy</b></td>
<td>is afraid to, hesitates to</td>
<td><b>Hwai <font color="#008000">fuy</font> seʔ.</b>
<br><i>The woman was afraid to speak.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ħur</b></td>
<td>has permission to</td>
<td><b>Pyey poy theʔ <font color="#008000">ħur</font> senħrin?</b>
<br><i>May I lower my hands?</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>thwom</b> </td>
<td>dares to</td>
<td><b>Kwar wor <font color="#008000">thwom</font> tswaut lye?</b>
<br><i>You dare to lie to the lord?</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pwir</b></td>
<td>might, is possibly</td>
<td><b>Nyanram <font color="#008000">pwir</font> fuy.</b>
<br><i>The Nyanese might be frightened.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>syom</b></td>
<td>speaker’s wish</td>
<td><b>Thrau <font color="#008000">syom</font> hyaur.</b>
<br><i>I wish he’d go.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ħwim</b></td>
<td>want to, is willing to</td>
<td><b>Kwar tse har <font color="#008000">ħwim</font> wimhar lye?</b>
<br><i>Do you want to marry this man?</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>foy</b></td>
<td>intend to</td>
<td><b>Pyey tulthrau fat <font color="#008000">foy</font> fau.</b>
<br><i>I’m going to sneak behind them.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ħwiyt</b></td>
<td>would like to but there is some constraint or opposition</td>
<td><b>Pyey <font color="#008000">ħ</font> <font color="#008000">wiyt</font> hyaur.</b>
<br><i>I’d like to go (but can’t).</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>fyen</b></td>
<td>is preparing to, is ready to</td>
<td><b>Non he, pyey <font color="#008000">fyen</font> phoyn.</b>
<br><i>Yeah, I’m ready to bounce.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>khloy</b></td>
<td>is going to </td>
<td><b>Nam <font color="#008000">khloy</font> ħum.</b>
<br><i>The boy will fail.</i></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Again, either the modal or the main verb can be negated or modified:
<blockquote>
<b>Lai fyaul<font color="#008000">en</font> wimhar.</b>
<br>girl must-not marry
<br><i>The girl must-not marry (i.e. she isn’t forced to do it)</i>
<br><b>Lai fyaul wimhar<font color="#008000">en</font>.</b>
<br>girl must marry-not
<br><i>The girl must not-marry (i.e. she is obliged by someone to stay single)</i>
</blockquote>
The modifiers include aspect particles, so one can distinguish e.g.
<blockquote>
<b>Loylai <font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">wer</font> ħur hyaur.</b>
<br>serve-girl begin may leave
<br><i>The maid just got permission to leave.</i>
<br><b>Loylai ħur <font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">wer</font> hyaur.</b>
<br>serve-girl may begin leave
<br><i>The maid has permission to begin leaving.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
The logic isn’t difficult: the modifier applies to whatever comes next. It’s English that confuses things by allowing negative hopping— e.g. “I don’t think you should go” really means “I think you should not-go.” This can only be <b>Pyey hroy khar kwor hyaur<font color="#008000">en</b></font>, with the negative modifying <b>hyau </b>‘go’.
<p>Don’t use the perfective on modals as a way to match English’s tense marking. We distinguish ‘I can dance’ from ‘I could dance (at the time)’, but both are properly rendered by <b>Pyey <font color="#008000">mur</font>nyun</b>. It would simply sound bizarre to say *<i>Pyey yumur nyun.</i><b>
<p>Khloy </b>is used for relatively certain events. Use one of the other modals if you can; e.g. <b>Wor wennur foy hyaur</b> ‘The lord will go tomorrow’ uses the intentive <b>foy</b> as it’s an expression of the subject’s will. <b>Wor wennur khloy hyaur</b> would be a prediction or a deduction.<b></b>
<h3><a name="Imperatives">Imperatives</a></h3>
Imperatives are expressed using modal expressions. The most peremptory is <b>tsor</b> ‘must (speaker’s estimation)’; almost any of the others can be used to soften the request. The choice of personal pronoun is also important here.
<blockquote>
<b>The na ħel <font color="#008000">tsor</font> men!</b>
<br>you.fam that door must close
<br><i>You (fam.) must close that door!</i>
<br>
<br><b>Kwar photram <font color="#008000">kwor</font> ħor.</b>
<br>you.resp barbarian should pay
<br><i>You (resp.) should pay the barbarian.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Syai ħwen fruʔ <font color="#008000">pwir</font> kriʔ lye?</b>
<br>HON honor drink might choose Q
<br><i>Milord will perhaps select a beverage?</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
Imperatives can be softened with the aspect clitic <b>nrau</b> ‘a little’:
<blockquote>
<b>Kwar lyut tyun welhyan tsor <font color="#008000">nrau</font>kwey!</b>
<br>you some portion salmon must little-eat
<br><i>You must try some salmon! (lit., must eat a little)</i>
</blockquote>
Also see <b>hyur</b> under <i>Pragmatic Particles</i>, which doesn’t require a modal.
<p>In an emergency— and by extension, to be insulting— one can omit the pronoun and modal, but add the question particle <b>lye</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Ħel men lye! Nau riʔ lye!</b>
<br>door shut Q / fire extinquish Q
<br><i>Shut the door! Put out the fire!</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Adjectives">Adjectives</h2>
These are of two kinds, roots (e.g. <b>pet </b>‘old’, <b>kwaʔ </b>‘foreign’) and derived words (<b>kranne </b>‘virtuous’, <b>syalenar </b>‘not having’).
<p>Useful affixes:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>-ar</b></td>
<td>adjectivizer for NVs; often comparable to our past participle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-ne</b></td>
<td>adjectivizer for pure nouns</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-fen</b></td>
<td>state or condition</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-wal</b></td>
<td>period of time</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-ram</b></td>
<td>person nominalizer: <b>fretram </b>crazy person</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sen-</b></td>
<td>causative</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>-enar</b></td>
<td>negative adjectivizer</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
If one of the nominalizers is added to a derived adjective, <b>-ne</b> drops out; e.g. <b>syunne hrau </b>‘sweet voice’ → <b>Syunhrau</b> (a name).
</table></blockquote>
<p>Compare <b>kharwal </b>‘youth, the period when one is young’, <b>kharfen </b>‘novelty, the state of being young or new’.
<p>Nouns and noun-verbs can’t be used directly as modifiers; use subordination instead. Or to be more precise, concatenation forms compounds, not phrases. E.g. ‘river town’ can be <b>tso nye tsiʔ </b>(subordinated clause) or <b>Tsotsiʔ </b>(compound name).
<p>A causative like <b>senkhar </b>‘make new’ acts like any other verb, except that the negative -<b>en</b> is applied to the first syllable: <b>senenkhar </b>‘not make new’</i>.
<h2><a name="transformations">Some transformations</h2>
<h3><a name="Questions">Questions</a></h3>
Yes-no questions are formed by the sentence-final particle <b>lye</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Tulpyey ħram nrewn <font color="#008000">lye</font>? </b>
<br>PL-I.resp gram.squash lack Q
<br><i>Are we out of squash?</i>
<br>
<br><b>Kwar fatħel tswen <font color="#008000">lye</font>?</b>
<br>you.resp cabal loyal Q
<br><i>Are you loyal to the Cabal?</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
However, <b>he </b>‘be’ has a separate interrogative verb <b>tsun</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Syai ħwen fret <font color="#008000">tsun</font>?</b>
<br>HON honor crazy be.Q
<br><i>Is milord crazy?</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
The standard answers are <b>Non he </b>‘yes’ and <b>Heʔen </b>‘no’.<b> </b>
<br>The <b>interrogative pronouns</b> are:
<br>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>tsem</b></td>
<td>who(m), what</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ħwon</b></td>
<td>where</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>fiʔ</b></td>
<td>when</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>noy</b></td>
<td>what (sentence)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>twoʔ</b></td>
<td>how many</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
These stay in their grammatically appropriate spot:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Tsem</font> lyut tyun khet ħwim?</b>
<br>who some part pie want
<br><i>Who wants some pie?</i>
<br>
<br><b>Na lyat <font color="#008000">tsem</font> ʔum?</b>
<br>that rifter who bite
<br><i>Who is that rifter biting?</i>
<br>
<br><b>Koy syan <font color="#008000">fiʔ</font> hlau?</b>
<br>your.resp mother when come
<br><i>When is your mother coming?</i>
<br>
<br><b>Pet mwor <font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">won</font> syiw?</b>
<br>old whale where sleep
<br><i>Where is the old whale sleeping?</i>
<br>
<br><b>Kwar <font color="#008000">twoʔ</font> har yutswun?</b>
<br>you.resp how.many men PAST-kill
<br><i>How many men have you killed?</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
<b>Noy</b> substitutes for an entire sentence; see <i>Conjunctions</i> below. For now, note <b>Phrem noy</b> ‘Why?’
<h3><a name="Doubled">Doubled verbs</a></h3>
Some verbs can be used to modify another, expressing manner, aspect, or result. As we’ll see, these aren’t compounds as material can come between the verbs.
<p>As they’re considered modifiers, they come before the verb.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>hyet</b></td>
<td>finish</td>
<td>+<b>khul</b> become → become completely
<br>+<b>krat</b> cut → cut to pieces</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tswun</b> </td>
<td>to death</td>
<td>+<b>kwul</b> strangle → strangle to death<br>+<b>phut</b> hit → beat to death</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>hyut</b></td>
<td>scatter, spread</td>
<td>+<b>khu</b> throw → throw all about<br>+<b>tsom</b> reside → live all around here</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>prow</b></td>
<td>cook</td>
<td>+<b>pwaʔ</b> boil → cook by boiling<br>+<b>thren </b>mix → stir-fry</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>wot</b></td>
<td>cross</td>
<td>+<b>khut</b> walk → walk across<br>+<b>fyuy</b> swim → swim across</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>keʔ</b></td>
<td>give (someone)</td>
<td>+<b>khu</b> throw → toss (to someone to keep)<br>+<b>triʔ</b> discard → get rid of (by giving away)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>tur</b></td>
<td>back; return; reciprocal </td>
<td>+<b>khut</b> walk → walk back
<br>+<b>khu</b> throw → throw back </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hlau</b></td>
<td>come</td>
<td>+<b>ħwa</b> carry → bring (here)
<br>+<b>khu</b> throw → throw here</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><b>pe</b></td>
<td>undo</td>
<td>+<b>hahat</b> wrap → unwrap<br>+<b>kram</b> tie → untie</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Examples:
<blockquote>
<b>Pyey na nyanram ħwim <font color="#008000">tswun phut</font>.</b>
<br>I.resp that Nyan-man wish kill hit
<br><i>I mean to beat that Nyanese to death.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Met <font color="#008000">hyut yutha</font>.</b>
<br>seed scatter PAST-fall
<br><i>The seeds fell all about.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
Aspects, modals, and negative -<b>en</b> are applied only to the second verb: <b>hyet ħwer krat </b>‘begin to cut to pieces’; <b>wot khuten </b>‘didn’t walk across’.
<h3><a name="Ongoing">Ongoing action</a></h3>
A sentence can have two concatenated verb phrases: S <font color="#008000">O</font><font size=1><font color="#008000">1</font></font><font color="#008000"> V</font><font size=1><font color="#008000">1</font></font> O<font size=1>2</font> V<font size=1>2</font>. The sense is “S did VP<font size=1>2</font> <font color="#008000">while doing VP</font><font size=1><font color="#008000">1</font></font>.” For instance:
<blockquote>
<b>Lai <font color="#008000">tyurram rul</font> rai yuhwaut.</b>
<br>girl customer speak skirt PAST-remove
<br><i>The girl removed her clothes <font color="#008000">while speaking to the customers</font>.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
In theory both verbs can be fully modified, but usually only the second is— after all, the entire embedded phrase can be considered an aspectual modifier. However, the first verb can be negated:
<blockquote>
<b>Kwar <font color="#008000">lyot prowen</font> tsem hluʔ?</b>
<br>you.resp dinner cook-NOT what do
<br><i>What did you do <font color="#008000">while not making dinner</font>?</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
The first verb need not have an object.
<blockquote>
<b>Kho <font color="#008000">hwehew</font> ħel yuphow.</b>
<br>she.resp shake door PAST-open
<br><i>She opened the door, <font color="#008000">shaking</font>.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
The doubled verbs discussed above can be seen as lexicalized instances of this pattern.
<p><b>Ditransitives</b> also follow this pattern. For instance, “to give X to Y” becomes <i>Y</i><b> keʔ </b><i>X</i><b> un</b>, literally “give X, while benefitting Y”.
<blockquote>
<b>Poy sram <font color="#008000">pyey keʔ</font> tse wow yuun.</b>
<br>my.resp brother I.resp help this ring PAST-give
<br><i>My brother gave <font color="#008000">me</font> this ring.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Locative">Locative verbs</a></h3>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td></td>
<td><i>locative</i></td>
<td><i>noun</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>thu</b></td>
<td>in, to</td>
<td>inside</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>twun</b></td>
<td>out</td>
<td>outside</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tran</b></td>
<td>in front of</td>
<td>front</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>fat</b></td>
<td>behind</td>
<td>behind</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hil</b></td>
<td>next to</td>
<td>side</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>purhil</b></td>
<td>on the right of </td>
<td>right side</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>khowmhil</b> </td>
<td>on the left of</td>
<td>left side</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tur</b></td>
<td>returning to</td>
<td>return</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hyau</b></td>
<td>on top of</td>
<td>top</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>syul</b></td>
<td>above</td>
<td>space above</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>khrum</b></td>
<td>below</td>
<td>underside</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>wot</b></td>
<td>across from</td>
<td>other side</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nyoun</b></td>
<td>surrounding</td>
<td>surroundings</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ʔel</b></td>
<td>apart from</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>wot</b></td>
<td>across (from)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b></b></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>keʔ</b></td>
<td>for, to</td>
<td>help</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>fwai</b></td>
<td>using, with</td>
<td>tool</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>rul</b></td>
<td>(speaking) to</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ken</b></td>
<td>along with</td>
<td>accompaniment</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>huy</b></td>
<td>among</td>
<td>separation</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nrewn</b></td>
<td>without</td>
<td>lack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>thur</b></td>
<td>like</td>
<td>similarity</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kwen</b></td>
<td>for (purpose)</td>
<td>purpose</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
What we’d express as a prepositional phrase becomes a locative verb in Uyseʔ. These also follow the ongoing action construction:
<blockquote>
<b>Loylai <font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">el fat</font> yaun.</b>
<br>serve-girl door behind listen
<br><i>The maid is listening <font color="#008000">behind the door</font>.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Pauram <font color="#008000">kroy fwai</font> hreram yuħwewn.</b>
<br>king sword use priest PAST-convince
<br><i>The king convinced the priest <font color="#008000">with a sword</font>.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
The locative verb can be used alone:
<blockquote>
<b>Loylai <font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">el fat</font>. Pauram <font color="#008000">kroy yufwai</font>.</b>
<br>serve-girl door behind / king sword PAST-use
<br><i>The maid is behind the door. The king used a sword.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
(Don’t add <b>he</b><i> </i>‘to be’, as the locative is all the verb you need.)
<br>Used alone, the locative verbs imply only location; the perfective however implies movement:
<blockquote>
<b>Loylai <font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">el yufat</font>. </b>
<br>serve-girl door PAST-behind
<br><i>The maid went behind the door. </i>
<br>
</blockquote>
Like all noun-verbs, the locatives can be used as nouns; the meaning as a noun is given in the table above; e.g. <b>kwal nye <font color="#008000">tur</font></b>‘the back of the box’, <b>koy frul nye <font color="#008000">hyau</b></font> ‘the top of your head’.
<h3><a name="modifying">Locatives modifying nouns</a></h3>
Locatives can modify a noun, using the subordinator <b>ar</b>:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">nel hyau ar</font>myar</b> <i>the cat on the mat</i>
<p><b><font color="#008000">Nyantai twun ar</font> phruʔram</b> <i>the thieves from Nyandai</i>
</blockquote>
Such modifiers can take aspect and modal particles, showing that they really are verbal expressions:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">nel keke hyau ar</font> myar </b> <i>the cat that’s frequently on the mat</i>
<p><b><font color="#008000">Nyantai pwir twun ar</font> phruʔram</b> <i>the thieves who might be from Nyandai</i>
</blockquote>
The effect of such clauses is like a relative clause. Compare:
<blockquote>
<b>Loylai <font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">el fat</font> yaun.</b>
<br>serve-girl door behind listen
<br><i>The maid is listening <font color="#008000">behind the door</font>.</i>
<br>
<br><b><font color="#008000">Ħel fat ar</font> loylai yaun.</b>
<br>door behind SUB serve-girl listen
<br><i>The maid <font color="#008000">who’s</font> <font color="#008000">behind the door</font> is listening.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
The <b>genitive</b> <b>nye </b>can be considered a locative verb, but it can’t modify the main verb, only a noun phrase, and it doesn’t use <b>ar</b>. (As a standalone verb it’s <b>nyeyt</b> ‘belong to’.)
<p>The word order of genitive expressions is backwards from English ‘of’, though similar to that of our possessive:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">wor nye</font> mwar</b> <i><font color="#008000">the lord’s</font> cat</i>
<br><b><font color="#008000">Uytai nye</font> ram</b> <i>the people <font color="#008000">of Uytai</font></i>
<br><b><font color="#008000">tyut nye</font> yol</b> <i>the name <font color="#008000">of the boy</font></i>
</blockquote>
As we saw above, locative compounds follow the pattern VO:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">hyau</font>thun</b> top-mountain = summit
<br><b><font color="#008000">fat</font>ħel</b> behind the door = conspiracy
<br><b><font color="#008000">Nye</font>khen</b> of the wolf = a given name.
</blockquote>
As with quantifiers, locative and genitive expressions <b>without a head</b> can be taken as referring to “people”:
<blockquote>
<b>Pyey <font color="#008000">Sleʔpho nye</font> thai.</b>
<br>I.resp Siad.βo GEN like
<br><i>I like Siadese girls. (lit., I like (those) of Siad βo).</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
However, if there’s a chance of confusion (e.g. in subject position, where the headless phrase might be taken to apply to the object) the head should be inserted.
<h2><a name="Complex">Complex sentences</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Subordination">Subordination</a></h3>
The formula for subordination is <i>S </i><b>ar</b><i> NP</i>:
<blockquote>
<b>Har lyai froy.</b>
<br><i>the man knows too much</i>
<br><b><font color="#008000">→ lyai froy ar</font> har</b>
<br><i>the man <font color="#008000">who knows too much</font></i>
<p><b>Ħom tai swiʔ nyoun.</b>
<br>big land sea surround
<br><i>The big land is surrounded by the sea.</i>
<p><b>→ ħom <font color="#008000">swiʔ nyoun ar </font> tai</b>
<br>big sea surround SUB land
<br><i>The big land <font color="#008000">surrounded by the sea</font> (name of Neinuoi)</i>
</blockquote>
Transitive verbs are ambiguous: <b><font color="#008000">lyat tswun ar</b></font> could mean “who killed a rifter” or “that a rifter killed”. The convention is that in case of ambiguity, it’s the direct object that was relativized; that is, <b><font color="#008000">lyat tswun ar</b></font> can only mean “that a rifter killed”. Similarly <b><font color="#008000">pyey </font><font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">wen ar</b></font><font color="#008000"> </font>can only mean<font color="#008000"> </font>‘that I love’.
<br>To relativize the subject, pronouns can be inserted:
<blockquote>
<b><u><font color="#008000">thrau</u></font><font color="#008000"> lyat tswun ar</font> har </b>
<br>he.resp rifter kill SUB man
<br><i>the man <font color="#008000">who killed a rifter</font> (lit. the man <font color="#008000">who </font><u><font color="#008000">he</u></font><font color="#008000"> killed a rifter</font>)</i>
<p><b><u><font color="#008000">khro</u></font><font color="#008000"> pyey </font><font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">wen</font> <font color="#008000">ar</font> lai</b>
<br>she.resp I.resp love SUB girl
<br><i>the girl <font color="#008000">who loves me</font> (lit. the girl <font color="#008000">who </font><u><font color="#008000">she</u></font><font color="#008000"> loves me</font>)</i>
</blockquote>
If the nature of the verb prevents ambiguity, this is not necessary:
<ul>
<li><b><font color="#008000">Lyai froy ar</font> har</b> ‘the man who knows too much’ isn’t ambigous because <b>froy </b>can only refer to propositions, not people.
<br><li><b><font color="#008000">Leyseʔ seʔ ar</font> hwai</b> ‘a woman who speaks Lé’ isn’t ambiguous because people can’t be the object of <b>seʔ— </b>to ‘speak to’ someone you use <b>rul. </b>
</ul>
The <b>adjectivizer</b> -<b>ar</b> is simply a cliticized form of such expressions and follows the same rule; thus <b>tswunar </b>is ‘killed’ and <b>ħwenar</b> means ‘loved’, while <b>froyar </b>means ‘known’ when applied to facts, ‘knowing, knowledgeable’ when applied to persons.
<br>Some examples of NPs with subordinated clauses in full sentences:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Syai </font><font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">wen twuntai ar wor</font> yutur.</b>
<br>HON honor exile SUB lord PAST-return
<br><i><font color="#008000">The lord you exiled</font> has returned.</i>
<p><b>Pyey sruyn <font color="#008000">prow pwaʔ ar fyeʔ</font> kwey.</b>
<br>I.resp only cook boil SUB meat eat
<br><i>I only eat <font color="#008000">meat that’s been boiled</font>.</i>
<p><b>Nar <font color="#008000">thrau poy lit krim</font><font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">un ar har</font> he!</b>
<br>that.one man my.resp wife seduce SUB man be
<br><i>That’s <font color="#008000">the man who seduced my wife</font>!</i>
</blockquote>
If the main noun is simple and predictable (e.g. <b>ram </b>‘person/people’, <b>proy </b>‘thing’) it can be <b>omitted</b> (the missing noun is marked as 0 in the gloss):
<blockquote>
<b>Pyey <font color="#008000">kwey ar</font> ħwim.</b>
<br>I.resp eat SUB 0 want
<br><i>I want <font color="#008000">something to eat</font>.</i>
<p><b><font color="#008000">Kwar swel ar</font> yuhyaur.</b>
<br>you.resp seek SUB 0 PAST-leave
<br><i><font color="#008000">The one you’re looking for</font> just left.</i>
</blockquote>
However, this is avoided before another NP, as it would be taken as modifying that NP. Compare:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Or wey syal ar har </font>nyan lai<font color="#008000"> </font>ħwen.</b>
<br>one arm have SUB man pretty girl love
<br><i><font color="#008000">The man with one arm</font> loves the pretty girl.</i>
<p><b><font color="#008000">Or wey syal ar </font>nyan lai<font color="#008000"> </font>ħwen.</b>
<br>one arm have SUB pretty girl love
<br><i>The pretty girl<font color="#008000"> with one arm</font> is in love.</i>
</blockquote>
<b>Time expressions</b> are formed by subordination to a temporal noun such as <b>phernur </b>‘yesterday’ or the catchall <b>nawal ‘</b>then’:<i> </i>
<blockquote>
<b>Pyey khro <font color="#008000">or thin kwai ar phernur</font> ħwer ħwen.</b>
<br>I she <font color="#008000">one time see SUB yesterday</font> begin love
<br><i>I fell in love with her <font color="#008000">yesterday, when I first saw her</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
Here note that ‘see’ has no explicit arguments at all, as they’re just the same as the main clause. Arguments are optional if they can be supplied from context.
<br>Time is conceived as flowing upward, so <b>khrumnur</b> ‘before’ is literally ‘below-time’; <b>syulnur </b>‘after’ is ‘above-time’; cf. also <b>khrumnyer</b> ‘morning’, <b>syulnyer </b>‘afternoon’.
<p>Recall that an object may be fronted with the topic particle <b>sru</b>; this comes in useful when the subordinate clause is long, or simply to make the sentence flow better.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Fretuy </font><font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">rew ar nawal </font>sru tai khuy hwehew.</b>
<br><font color="#008000">mad.ancestor wake SUB then</font> TOPIC nation change.state shiver
<br><i><font color="#008000">When the mad ancestors awake</font>, the kingdom shivers.</i>
</blockquote>
Similarly, <b>location adverbials</b> (as distinct from locative verbs) are formed by subordination to a locative adverb such as <b>nahun </b>‘there’:
<blockquote>
<b>Thrau throy so <font color="#008000">tso pwan ar nahun</font> yumwum.</b>
<br>he his house <font color="#008000">river bends SUB there</font> build.PAST
<br><i>He built his house <font color="#008000">where the river bends</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="saying">Verbs of saying and thinking</a></h3>
The general formula for direct reported speech or thought is simply <i>X verb S, </i>with no explicit marking of the proposition. For instance:
<blockquote>
<b>Ħwenar uy yuseʔ, <font color="#008000">pauram khloy tsre</font>.</b>
<br>honored ancestor PAST-say / king FUT die
<br><i>The honored ancestor said, “The king is going to die.”</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
If the addressee is given, use <b>rul</b> instead: <b>Ħwenar uy khrumkeʔ <font color="#008000">yurul</font>...</b> “The honored ancestor said to the minister...”
<p>Indirect speech uses the special subordinator <b>swai</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Ħwenar uy yuseʔ <font color="#0000ff">swai</font> <font color="#008000">pauram khloy tsre</font>.</b>
<br>honored ancestor PAST-say SUB king FUT die
<br><i>The honored ancestor said that the king was going to die.</i>
</blockquote>
In indirect speech we adjust the tenses to the time of narrative—note <i>is </i>becoming <i>was </i>in the glosses. This isn’t done in Uyseʔ; the tenses remain those chosen by the speaker.
<h3><a name="Causatives">Causatives</a></h3>
Causatives look similar to verbs of speaking; the formula is <i>X verb S</i> where <i>verb </i>is a causative verb such as <b>krem </b>‘cause’, <b>ħril</b> ‘force’, <b>ħwewn</b> ‘persuade’, <b>ħur </b>‘permit’, or <b>rit </b>‘teach’, and S is a sentence telling what was caused.
<blockquote>
<b>Syailit krem <font color="#008000">pyey myet prow</font>.</b>
<br>queen cause I.resp ko.tofu cook
<br><i>The queen made <font color="#008000">me cook tofu</font>.</i>
<p><b>Pyey nrau ħwewn <font color="#008000">purhret hyaur.</font></b>
<br>I.resp try persuade good-power leave
<br><i>I’ll try to persuade <font color="#008000">the spirit to leave</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
These can be seen as pivot constructions— e.g. <b><font color="#008000">pyey</b></font> in the first example is the object of <b>krem</b> ‘cause’ and the subject of <b><font color="#008000">prow</b></font> ‘cook’.
<h3><a name="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a></h3>
If arguments are short (single words), they can simply be concatenated:
<blockquote>
<b>Wor <font color="#008000">khoyt notseʔ saim</font> syal.</b>
<br>lord sheep notseh sammule have
<br><i>The lord owns sheep, notseh cattle, and sammules. </i>
<br>
<br><b>Pyey <font color="#008000">hyor syan</font> ħwen.</b>
<br>I.resp father mother love
<br><i>I love my father and my mother.</i>
</blockquote>
This is more colloquial than literary, since outside of speech it isn’t always clear which arguments go together— technically the last example could be “My father and I love my mother.” One can of course topicalize the whole list: <b>Hyor syan sru pyey ħwen.</b>
<p>If a group of conjoints all use one of the common suffixes <b>ram, tai, seʔ </b>(people, land, language), it can be omitted from all but the last:
<blockquote>
<b>Pyey <font color="#008000">nyan phet sleʔseʔ</font> mur seʔ.</b>
<br>I.resp Nyan Pheʔ Siad-speech can speak
<br><i>I can speak Nyanese, Pheseʔ, and Siadese.</i>
</blockquote>
A related pair of referents uses the formula <i>X Y </i><b>nrar</b>; since mother and father are a couple, the above example could also be <b>Pyey <font color="#008000">hyor syan nrar</font> ħwen. </b>But if the lord lost his sammules, it wouldn’t be appropriate to say *<b>Wor <font color="#008000">khoyt notseʔ nrar</font> syal</b> since sheep and cattle aren’t a natural couple.<i></i>
<p>Alternatively one can use <b>ken</b> ‘with’. As it’s originally a locative verb, one can say X (Y <b>ken</b>) or (X <b>ken</b>) Y; the latter is more common, perhaps because it clearly distinguishes the NPs. If there are more than two conjoints, <b>ken</b> is repeated for each.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Nwunram ken thakahnram ken </font><font color="#008000">ħ</font><font color="#008000">rinram</font> poy swaum ħret thu he.</b>
<br>Fananaki and Ōkmisan and elcari 1s.gen enemy west in be
<br><i>The Fananaki, the Ōkmisan, and the elcari are our enemies to the west.</i>
</blockquote>
For disjunctions one can similarly use <b>huy </b>‘among’:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Koyne sol huy koyne tsyanlai</font> foy phwut.</b>
<br>your.resp son among your.resp mistresss intend betray
<br><i>Your son or your mistress will betray you.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
Verbs can be conjoined this way also: <b>he huy heʔen</b> ‘to be or not to be’. However, entire clauses shouldn’t be conjoined this way.
<p>Entire <b>clauses</b> use the formula <i>cj S cj S,</i> where the conjunctions are taken from the following:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">condition</font> / <font color="#0000ff">consequent</font></td>
<td><b>khyet <font color="#008000">S</font>hinnar <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td>if <font color="#008000">S</font> then <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">cause</font> / <font color="#0000ff">inference</font></td>
<td><b>phrem <font color="#008000">S</font>hinnar <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td>because of <font color="#008000">S</font>, now <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><i><font color="#008000">so</i></font><font color="#008000"> statement</font> / <font color="#0000ff">inference</font></td>
<td><b>maut <font color="#008000">S</font>phrem <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td>it’s so <font color="#008000">S</font> that <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">statement</font> / <font color="#0000ff">analogy</font></td>
<td><b>pwer <font color="#008000">S</font>slor <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td><font color="#008000">S</font> just as <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">action</font> / <font color="#0000ff">later action</font></td>
<td><b>phaur <font color="#008000">S</font>ħwet <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td>first <font color="#008000">S</font> then <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">denial</font> / <font color="#0000ff">statement</font></td>
<td><b>tyaur <font color="#008000">S</font>kwon <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td>not <font color="#008000">S</font> because <font color="#0000ff">T; </font>you’d think <font color="#008000">S</font> but <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">statement</font> / <font color="#0000ff">conjoint</font></td>
<td><b>pwer <font color="#008000">S</font>nreken <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td>both <font color="#008000">S</font> and <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">statement </font>/ <font color="#0000ff">surprise</font><font color="#008000"></td>
<td></font><b>pwer <font color="#008000">S</font>kwon <font color="#008000">T</font></b></td>
<td><font color="#008000">S</font>, but <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">statement</font> / <font color="#0000ff">alternative</font></td>
<td><b>pwer <font color="#008000">S</font>orken <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td>either <font color="#008000">S</font> or <font color="#0000ff">T</font> (exclusive or)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#008000">denial</font> / <font color="#0000ff">another denial</font></td>
<td><b>tyaur <font color="#008000">S</font>rauken <font color="#0000ff">T</font></b></td>
<td>neither <font color="#008000">S</font> nor <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Some but not all of these can be <b>reversed</b>. Note that <i>hinnar</i> changes to <i>hintser</i> in this case.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><font color="#0000ff">consequent</font> / <font color="#008000">condition</font> </td>
<td><b>hintser <font color="#0000ff">T</font>khyet <font color="#008000">S</font></b></td>
<td><font color="#0000ff">T</font> given <font color="#008000">S</font>; if <font color="#008000">S </font>then <font color="#0000ff">T</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#0000ff">inference</font> / <font color="#008000">cause</font> </td>
<td><b>hintser <font color="#0000ff">T</font>phrem <font color="#008000">S</font></b></td>
<td><font color="#0000ff">T</font> because of <font color="#008000">S</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#0000ff">inference</font> / <i><font color="#008000">so</i></font><font color="#008000"> statement</font> </td>
<td><b>phrem <font color="#0000ff">T</font>maut <font color="#008000">S</font></b></td>
<td><font color="#0000ff">T</font>, because it’s so <font color="#008000">S</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#0000ff">action</font> / <font color="#008000">earlier action</font> </td>
<td><b>ħwet <font color="#0000ff">T</font>phaur <font color="#008000">S</font></b></td>
<td><font color="#0000ff">T</font> and previously <font color="#008000">S</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#0000ff">statement</font> / <font color="#008000">denial</font></td>
<td><b>kwon <font color="#0000ff">T </font>tyaur <font color="#008000">S</font></b></td>
<td><font color="#0000ff">T</font> and so not <font color="#008000">S</font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><font color="#0000ff">analogy </font>/ <font color="#008000">statement</font><font color="#0000ff"></td>
<td></font><b>slor <font color="#0000ff">T</font>pwer <font color="#008000">S</font></b></td>
<td>just as <font color="#0000ff">T</font>, <font color="#008000">S</font><font color="#0000ff"></td>
<td></font></td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b>Khyet <font color="#008000">kyauso mwum</font> hinnar <font color="#0000ff">uy hlau</font>.</b>
<br>if temple build therefore ancestor come
<br><i>If you build the temple, the ancestors will come. </i>
<br>
<br><b>Phrem <font color="#008000">kwar pauram</font> <font color="#008000">khweʔ </font>hinnar <font color="#0000ff">kwar pil</font>.</b>
<br>because you.resp king annoy therefore you.resp imprison
<br><i>You annoyed the king, so you are in jail.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Maut <font color="#008000">Uykhrai tswaum he</font> phrem <font color="#0000ff">rauʔ hyaur</font>.</b>
<br>so Uykhrai crowded be therefore no.one go
<br><i>Uykhrai is so crowded that no one goes there.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Pwer <font color="#008000">Syalenar fret he</font> orken <font color="#0000ff">sautram he</font>.</b>
<br>possible.case Syalenar crazy be alternative wise-man be
<br><i>Either Syalenar was crazy, or he was a sage.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Tyaur <font color="#008000">khro lin he</font> kwon <font color="#0000ff">frim thwil</font>.</b>
<br>denial she.resp happy be but still plot
<br><i>You’d think she’d be happy, but she is still plotting.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
Don’t look for an equivalent of the conditional or subjunctive, or add modal particles— the modality is already implied by the conjunctions. E.g. in the first example, the first clause is just <b>kyauso mwum </b>‘build the temple’; <b>khyet </b>alone is enough to imply that the temple wasn’t actually built. (If it was and you’re drawing a logical consequence, use <b>phrem...hinnar </b>instead.)
<p>Similarly, be careful with <b>tyaur</b> which is itself a negative: <b>tyaur </b><i>S</i><b> </b>means that <i>S</i> isn’t true.
<p>If the conjoined predicates are very similar, identical elements can be removed:
<blockquote>
<b>Pwer <font color="#008000">Syalenar fret he</font> orken <font color="#0000ff">sautram</font>.</b>
<br>possible.case Syalenar crazy be alternative wise-man
<br><i>Syalenar was either crazy, or a sage.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Tyaur <font color="#008000">pyey saur kweyen</font> rauken <font color="#0000ff">fyeʔ</font>.</b>
<br>denial I.resp fish eat-NOT also.not meat
<br><i>I eat neither fish nor meat.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
But don’t apply the conjunctions to just the differing elements: <b>*Syalenar pwer <font color="#008000">fret</font> orken <font color="#0000ff">sautram</font> he </b>would be baffling.
<p>Conjunctions can be nested:
<blockquote>
<b>Khyet <font color="#008000">pauram pyow</font> hinnar <font color="#0000ff">pwer kroywar </font><font color="#0000ff">ħwer ħum nreken tsratram purwal</font>.</b>
<br>logical structure = Khyet <font color="#008000">S</font> hinnar [<font color="#0000ff">pwer T nreken U</font>]
<br>because king be.sick therefore both army begin fail and evil men celebrate
<br><i>Because the king is sick, both the armies falter, and the evil men rejoice.</i>
</blockquote>
One can add to someone else’s thought using a conjunction as a <b>connective</b>, and by extension use them for afterthoughts of one’s own. As connectives the meanings are as follows:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>hintser</b> </td>
<td>so, therefore X</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>phrem</b></td>
<td>only because of X</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nreken</b></td>
<td>also X</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>rauken</b></td>
<td>also not X</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>orken</b></td>
<td>but perhaps X</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kwon</b></td>
<td>however </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>khyet</b></td>
<td>and then</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b>Nyantai tyai he. <br>—<font color="#008000">Phrem</font> khepriram tulthrau phral!</b>
<br>Nyandai strong be / because Kebrei-man PL-they.resp support
<br><i>Nyandai is strong.
<br>—Only because the Kebreni support them!</i>
<p><b>Syai ħwen troyne he ....<font color="#008000">kwon</font> lin heʔen.</b>
<br>HON honor rich be / however happy be-not
<br><i>Milord is rich. But milord is not happy.</i>
</blockquote>
<b>Noy</b> is used to form <b>questions</b> with any of these constructions; it stands in for the conjoint you’re eliciting. Either the two-place or one-place constructions can be used.
<blockquote>
<b>Phrem <font color="#0000ff">noy</font>? / Hintser <font color="#0000ff">noy</font>? / Khyet <font color="#0000ff">noy</font>?</b>
<br>only.because.of Q.S / therefore Q.S / and.then Q.S
<br><i>Why? / So what? / What next?</i>
<p><b>Khyet <font color="#008000">sairhun mwum</font> hinnar <font color="#0000ff">noy</font>?</b>
<br>and.then gymnasium build therefore Q.S
<br><i>If you build a gymnasium, what will happen?</i>
<p><b>Tyaur <font color="#008000">pyey lin he</font> kwon <font color="#0000ff">noy</font>?</b>
<br>denial I.resp happy be but Q.S
<br><i>Why am I not happy? </i>
</blockquote>
It has a parallel demonstrative <b>syer </b>‘that (clause)’, which can be used the same way.
<blockquote>
<b>Syai ħwen troyne he. Phrem <font color="#008000">syer</font> hinnar <font color="#0000ff">syai </font><font color="#0000ff">ħ</font><font color="#0000ff">wen lin he</font> lye?</b>
<br>HON honor rich be / because that therefore HON honor happy be Q
<br><i>You are rich. Are you not happy because of that?</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Comparatives">Comparatives</a></h3>
The comparative construction has the formula <i>X </i><i><font color="#008000">verb</i></font><i> Y </i><i><font color="#0000ff">VP</i></font> where the verb of comparison is one of <b>pwi </b>‘more than’, <b>sloʔ </b>‘as much as’, <b>nyor</b> ‘less than’.
<blockquote>
<b>Poy tsit <font color="#008000">pwi</font> pyey <font color="#0000ff">kwow he</font>.</b>
<br>my.resp sister more.than I.resp fat be
<br><i>My sister is fatter than I am.</i>
<p><b>Pyey <font color="#008000">sloʔ</font> kwar <font color="#0000ff">Nyekhen </font><font color="#0000ff">ħ</font><font color="#0000ff">wen</font>.</b>
<br>I.resp as.much you Nyekhen love
<br><i>I love Nyekhen as much as you do.</i>
<p><b>Sil <font color="#008000">pwi</font> pyey <font color="#0000ff">pwit mirram kwai.</font></b>
<br>she.resp more.than I.resp many lover see
<br><i>She has more lovers than I do.</i>
</blockquote>
If the comparands are the direct object, use the topicalizer <b>sru</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Pyey <font color="#008000">sloʔ</font> kwar sru <font color="#0000ff">Nyekhen </font><font color="#0000ff">ħ</font><font color="#0000ff">wen</font>.</b>
<br>I as.much you TOPIC Nyekhen love
<br><i>Nyekhen loves me as much as he does you.</i>
</blockquote>
One (third-person) conjoint or the other may be omitted if it’s already the topic of discussion:
<blockquote>
<b>Poy tsit yusor wimhar. <font color="#008000">Pwi pyey</font> kwow he.</b>
<br>my.resp sister not-once marry / more.than I fat be
<br><i>My sister has never married. She’s fatter than I am.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Superlatives">Superlatives</a></h3>
Superlatives are formed with the adverbs <b>khret</b><i> </i>‘the most’ or <b>sin </b>‘the least’:
<blockquote>
<b>Na phwaun nyan <font color="#008000">khret</font> he.</b>
<br>that bear pretty most be
<br><i>That bear is the prettiest.</i>
<br>
<br><b>Hwaitai myet <font color="#008000">sin</font> kwey.</b>
<br>woman-land ko.tofu least eat
<br><i>Belesao eats the least tofu.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Pragmatic">Pragmatic particles</a></h2>
There are a few particles, appearing at the beginning of the sentence, with a pragmatic meaning.
<p><b>Pyur</b> can be said to emphasize relevance. Contexts might include:
<ul>
<li>A repeated statement which wasn’t understood the first time:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Pyur</font> syai nawar lyurnyau soren tyur.</b>
<br>TOPIC HON he.lit painting once-NOT buy
<br><i>As I said, his lordship does not purchase paintings.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
<li>A connection that requires a little thought to see:
<br>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Pyur</font> koy syan ʔelne rum.</b>
<br>TOPIC your.resp mother lonely feel
<br><i>Look, your mother is lonely, right? </i>
<br>
</blockquote>
<li>Information the listener doesn’t know— softer than a contradiction:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Pyur</font> pyey phun slet nye kroytsya he.</b>
<br>TOPIC I.resp five level GEN swordsman be
<br><i>FYI, I am a fifth level swordsman.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
</ul>
<b>Huʔ</b> expresses surprise:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Huʔ </font>pyey froyen lyut mwel he.</b>
<br>surprise I.resp know-not some here be
<br><i>Huh! I didn’t know anyone was here.</i>
</blockquote>
<b>Wa</b> expresses recognition, agreement, or regret:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Wa</font> tyaur syai hwen loyram he kwon wor he.</b>
<br>ah neither HON honor servant be however lord be
<br><i>Ah, you’re not the servant, you’re the lord. </i>
</blockquote>
<b>Priw</b> marks dispreferred responses:
<blockquote>
<b>Kwar poy tsyanmwen hlau lye?<br>—<font color="#008000">Priw</font> pyey poy hilsyan fyaul hyaur.</b>
<br>you.resp my.resp party come Q
<br>well I.resp my uncle must go
<br><i>You’re coming to my party?
<br>—Er... I have to go see my uncle. </i>
<p><b>Ferturram thakan mwan lye?<br>—<font color="#008000">Priw</font> tulthrau hlim fwai hlau.</b>
<br>Verduria-person horse sit Q
<br>well PL-they.resp boat use come
<br><i>The Verdurians ride horses?
<br>—Well, they come here by boat. </i>
</blockquote>
<b>ʔo<i> </b></i>stalls for time or holds the floor; as such it can occur anywhere in the sentence.
<blockquote>
<b>Hwaitai nye pautsiʔ....<font color="#008000"> ʔo</font>... Hwaitaitsiʔ he lye?</b>
<br>woman-land GEN capital / er / woman-land-city be Q
<br><i>The capital of Belesao is... uh... Belesao City?</i>
</blockquote>
<b>Kwel</b> has several meanings, but always has a feeling of <i>de haut en bas</i>:
<br>
<ul>
<li>It can mark a friendly warning or reminder:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Kwel</font> wor pautyunram waumen.</b>
<br>warning lord tax-person like-NOT
<br><i>Just so you know, the lord doesn’t like taxmen.</i>
</blockquote>
<li>It marks advice or mild judgments:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Kwel</font> nrepret thin kur tsai lyai pwir he.</b>
<br>warning eight order cup tee too.much might be
<br><i>I’d say an eighth cup of tea might be too much.</i>
</blockquote>
</ul>
<b>Hyur</b> (literally ‘beg’) is equivalent to our ‘please’:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Hyur</font> kwar koy koyt syan hyaur.</b>
<br>beg you.resp your.resp wretched mother go
<br><i>Please visit your poor mother.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="calendar">The calendar</a></h2>
<h3><a name="day">The day</a></h3>
Uytai has an unusual way of measuring time within the day (<b>nur</b>), dating to ancient times: clocks are started at dawn (<b>reʔ</b>), run for 18 hours, and stop sometime in the evening— time simply isn’t recorded in the middle of the night.
<p>The time between dawn and dusk is divided into 14 hours (<b>nurtyun</b>); thus they’re about 51 minutes long. They’re numbered and named thusly:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#B5AFE5"><td><i>hour</i></td>
<td><i>name</i></td>
<td><i>gloss</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5">1</td>
<td><b>reʔ</b></td>
<td>dawn</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5">2 - 6</td>
<td><b>khrumnyer</b></td>
<td>morning</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5">7</td>
<td><b>nyer</b></td>
<td>noon</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5">8 - 14</td>
<td><b>syulnyer </b></td>
<td>afternoon</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5">15</td>
<td><b>tsyen</b></td>
<td>dusk</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#B5AFE5">16 - 18</td>
<td><b>mwen</b></td>
<td>evening</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
That is, the entire first hour (<b>or thin nurtyun</b>) is referred to as <b>reʔ</b>, and the clock begins with 1, not 0.
<p>The system seems to have been devised after the invention of water clocks (<b>nurħin</b>) which needed to be reset each day, and which could keep track of the early evening hours as well. When the last water ran out at or before the 18th hour— <b>ħot thin nurtyun</b>, about 9:25 p.m.—decent people should be in bed. The night time (<b>phran</b>) was the <b>nrewnson nurtyun</b>, the uncounted hours.
<p>The time before dawn is also called <b>khrumreʔ</b> ‘below-dawn’, as time is conceived as flowing upward.
<p>As it happens astronomers had early on found it useful to count the uncounted hours—but they did so by counting 36 hours from dusk to dusk. Their reckoning is called <b>nrulkraune nurtyun</b> ‘astronomical hours’. When an even finer measure was needed, the <b>nurtyun</b> was divided into 18 again, creating a <b>tsunur</b> of a little less than three minutes.
<h3><a name="year">The year</a></h3>
Days are organized into <b>kraiwal</b>, periods of about 17 days matching the period of the second moon Iliacáš (<b>Krai</b>). The first day of this period is <b>orkrai</b>, generally a holiday and often used as a market day; it corresponds to when Iliacáš is full. The remaining days can be numbered, e.g. <b>tswar thin nur</b> ‘the fourth day’.
<p>The year is divided into six seasons (<b>ʔaut</b>), 54 or 55 days long:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>khlaut</b></td>
<td>winter</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>krit</b></td>
<td>planting</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pyol</b></td>
<td>late spring</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ħrain</b></td>
<td>summer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tsyor</b></td>
<td>early fall</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mait</b></td>
<td>harvest</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
There are about 17 <b>kraiwal</b> in a year, so a bit more than 3 per season. They’re numbered within the season, e.g. <b>pyol nye nre thin kraiwal </b>‘the second <i>kraiwal</i> of late spring’.
<p>For other purposes the periods of Iliažë (<b>Trau</b>) are also counted— the 28-day <b>trauwal</b>. The full moon (<b>ortrau</b>) is also a holiday, generally with a a civic cast. A little more than once a year the two full moons are separated by just one day, <b>huywon </b>(‘between the moons’); naturally this produces a raucous three-day holiday.
<h2><a name="Sample">Sample texts</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Conversation">Conversation</a></h3>
The following conversation, from a comic piece by the contemporary writer Miltsiʔ, from Swiʔkyau, was chosen to showcase colloquial speech, including common greetings and closings.
<blockquote>
<b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Linram a, koykwar keʔ khrai.</b>
<br>Linram voc / you.lit for blessing (a common semiformal greeting)
<br><i>Hanhar: Good morning, Linram.</i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. Hyaunim khrai.</b>
<br>boss blessing (a more colloquial form)
<br><i>Linram: Hello, boss.</i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Koy hyorsyan phen he lye?</b>
<br>
your parent safe be Q (a nearly mandatory polite inquiry)
<br><i>H: Your parents are well?</i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. Hyaunim a, mwai phen.</b>
<br>boss / very safe
<br><i>L: Quite well, boss.</i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Linram a, myiwar rauʔthal he. Kwar thalkwai lye, kwar swirħat yukwim?</b>
<br>Linram voc / rot-SUB idiot be / you remember Q / you candle PERF-order
<br>When the preliminaries are over, the boss’s tone suddenly changes.
<br><i>H: You festering half-wit, Linram. Do you remember ordering candlesticks?</i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. Pyey ʔo... yukwim. Non he, yukwim.</b>
<br>I um PERF-order / true be / PERF-order
<br>Note the repetition of the verb rather than our use of an auxiliary ‘do’.
<br><i>L: Er... I believe I did that. Yes, I did. </i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Kwar... twoʔ... khim... yu... kwim?</b>
<br>you how.many of.them PERF-order
<br>The number can’t be used alone, except for people; thus the use of <i>khim </i>‘of them’.
<br><i>H: How... many... did... you... order? </i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. Syai a, ħotorpret khim.</b>
<br>sir voc / 18-9 of.them
<br><i>L: 162, sir.</i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Kwar tsyir thalkwai lye?</b>
<br>you for.sure remember Q
<br><i>H: You’re certain.</i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. Syai a, ʔo... pyey mur laur. Ħrinħruy theʔne kwor he... </b>
<br>sir voc / um I can check / note at.hand should be
<br><i>L: I... I can check, sir. The record should be right here... </i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Linram a, pyey khram kwar keʔ mur threw. Kwar ħotorpret khim yukwimen. Thwauorpret yukwin.</b>
<br>Linram voc / I trouble you give can remove / you 18-9 of.them PERF-order-not / 18<font size=1><sup>2</sup></font>-9 PERF-order
<br><i>H: I can save you the trouble, Linram. You didn’t order 162. You ordered 2916. </i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. Huʔ hon lye? Sroy ħrul he.</b>
<br>(surprise) true Q / much seem be
<br><i>L: Really, sir? That seems like a lot.</i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Phlaʔar lyat nye pon a, tsyir he! Nar tse khrumnyer yuhlau. Thwauorpret swirħat!</b>
<br>drool-SUB rifter of ass voc / certain be / that.one this morning PERF-come / 18<font size=1><sup>2</sup></font>-9 candle
<br>The last NP is an afterthought, but this can also be viewed as a case of backing, with <i>nar</i> ‘that one’ left in its place.
<br><i>H: Of course it’s a lot, you drooling rifter bottom! They arrived this morning. 2916 candleticks! </i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. Syai a, pyey lyai fwar<i>. </i>Ħot ken thwau ħrul sroy thur.</b>
<br>sir voc / I too.much regret / 18 with 18<font size=1><sup>2</sup></font> seem much be.similar
<br>“X is similar to Y” is expressed using a conjoined subject. <i>Ken</i> isn’t mandatory but it’s safer to keep numbers apart so it’s clear they’re conjoined, not added.
<br><i>L: Ah... I’m sorry, sir. ‘18’ sounds a lot like ‘324’... </i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Nar... tsem seʔ? Pyur thwauorpret swirħat tsem fwai he?</b>
<br>that.one / what say / look 18<font size=1><sup>2</sup></font>-9 candle what for be
<br><i>H: It... what? Listen, Linram, what are we going to do with 2916 candlesticks?</i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. ʔo... khrumso sinseʔ ruy senhen.</b>
<br>um office at.least very illuminate
<br><i>L: Um... the building will be well lit, at least.</i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Pyey kwor krem kwar nar kwey. Nur keʔ or khim, nrepret fyat ar wal!</b>
<br>I should cause you that.one eat / day for one of.them / eight year of time
<br><i>H: I should have you eat them. One a day, for the next eight years!</i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. ʔo... syai a, pyey fwar.</b>
<br>um sir voc / I regret
<br><i>L: Er... I am sorry, sir.</i>
<p><b>H<font size=1>ANHAR</font>. Linram a, phen he. Koykwar uy nron.</b>
<br>Linram voc / safe be / you.lit ancestor watch
<br>These are formalized expressions— a common polite farewell.
<br><i>H: Goodbye, Linram! The ancestors watch you.</i>
<p><b>L<font size=1>INRAM</font>. Hyaunim nron, phen he.</b>
<br>boss watch / safe be
<br>The standard response.
<br><i>L: Yours as well, boss, goodbye.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="poem">A poem</a></h3>
The following unnamed poem is by one Heyfai, a Srethunese poet of about 3050, and is fairly typical of Uytainese poetry: terse, evocative of single moments and perceptions, focussed on the natural world, and a little bittersweet.
<p>Poetry (<b>ħrinhroy</b>) in Uyseʔ is normally rhymed, wth a fixed number of syllables (<b>nwai</b>) per line (<b>phil</b>). This particular poem is in the form known as <b>tswar ler het</b> ‘four by six’, i.e. 6 lines of 4 syllables each. <b>Tswar ler </b>or four-syllable lines are the most popular verse form, conducive to representing a phrase or short sentence. (<b>Het ler</b> or six-syllable lines are the next commonest.) There’s a slight pause at the end of a line; the first sentence of the poem is five words long, and the pause adds a sense of anticipation, highlighting the next word, <b>tha </b>‘fall’.
<p>The Uytainese tendency to omit unnecessary words is encouraged in poetry.
<p>Note that Uyseʔ is written right to left.
<blockquote>
<table>
<tr>
<td>
<b>Myom hyau phrau hew
<br>tha khyet pyey ħrew
<br>ʔar proy him he
<br>tsyur suʔ hanne
<br>hew he hyaunyen
<br>raumfen unen </b>
<p>branch top heavy snow
<br>fall in.that.case I.resp wake
<br>all thing silent be
<br>white cold pure
<br>snow be bedcover
<br>warm-ness give-NOT
<p><i>Heavy snow on the branches
<br>falls, waking me
<br>All is silent
<br>White, cold, and pure
<br>the snow is a blanket
<br>that gives no warmth</i>
</td>
<td width="20"> </td>
<td><img src="lb-poem.gif">
</td></tr></table>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Powers">The care of Powers</a></h3>
Uytai is perhaps the only human culture which has produced clear and straightforward manuals of magic— that is, not obfuscated and dubious arcana like those we have seen in Axunai, but accessible manuals for dealing with the Powers— the <b>purhret</b>— that underlie Uytainese magic. (For an introduction to the Powers, see the stories of <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Be%C4%8Dagbi">Bečagbi</a> and <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Hensaut">Hensaut</a>.)
<p>The following are extracts from the <i>Nrepret thin ʔarpaune purpham</i> or <i>Eighth Imperial Book of Magic</i>, compiled under the emperor Khairam in 1905. This volume contains much specific advice. Whether it works on our own planet I can’t say, of course, but interested readers may wish to consult the original work, still readily available in Uytai.
<p>The text has been modernized, mostly a matter of replacing archaic terminology and pronouns (note that ‘literary’ forms are used).
<blockquote>
<b>Koykwar purhret kwau fwai tsor rul; prom nrewnwor ar hoy fwai.</b>
<br>you power respect with must speak / fit.for sovereign SUB term use
<br><i>Always address the Power with respect— use the terns appropriate to a sovereign. </i>
<br><b>Kwon koykwar senkhrumar nwalhyur net fwai; wor thur seʔ syer tulnawar nwau.</b>
<br>however you abased pleading must.not use / lord like speak this.idea them bore
<br><i>Syer</i> refers to the previously mentioned idea (acting with abject supplication).
<br><i>Yet do not act with abject supplication; to be frank, this will bore them. </i>
<br><b>Pwer kriʔ koykwar ar purhret koykwar syul mwai he; kwon nawar koykwar nrat thal thu tsor kwau huy thai.</b>
<br>CONJ choose you SUB power you above very be / however he you private mind in must respect or value
<br>The adverbial <i>nrat thal thu </i>‘in their own mind’ can be used of any person or institution which has its own, inscrutable way of thinking.
<br><i>The Power which chooses you will be your superior, but on its own level it must respect or appreciate you. </i>
<p><b>...Koykwar phrut purhret rul syal: koykwar loy ar tai yuun ar phrut.</b>
<br>you goal power address have: you serve SUB country past-give SUB goal
<br><i>...You have a purpose in dealing with the Power— that given by the State you serve. </i>
<br><b>Koykwar net foy purhret tse phrut maur— pwer koykwar wor hyur ar rulram heʔen nreken khyet koykwar nwalhyur swolseʔ hinnar ħum.</b>
<br>you must.not expect / power this goal have.interest / both you lord beg SUB envoy be-not and if you supplication emphasize then fail
<br><i>Do not expect the Power to show much interest in this purpose— you are not an emissary beseeching a lord and will not succeed by focussing attention on your plea. </i>
<br><b>Nrat thal thu sru tsene hrew pyelar kenkyow huy loyram nye pol he.</b>
<br>private mind in TOPIC our request favored companion or servant of reward be
<br><i>From the Power’s point of view, our requests are only rewards for a favored companion or servant. </i>
<br><b>Tsem kwen pol? Sruyn koyne purhret syer mur seʔ.</b>
<br>what for reward / only your power this.idea can say
<br><i>What are the rewards for? This only your Power can answer. </i>
<br><b>Tsutsyan pwir he— koykwar nawar thley.</b>
<br>toy might be / you him amuse
<br><i>It may be a trifle— you amuse them. </i>
<br><b>Ħrau waut pwir he, koykwar sroy fyor ar waut.</b>
<br>difficult task might be / you a.lot expend SUB task
<br><i>It may be an arduous and dangerous task which takes much out of you. </i>
<br><b>Tyaur loyhret lum ħlet thur hlau ħwa kwon tsyunproy hlau ħwa.</b>
<br>not magic success war like come carry because danger come carry
<br>A denial/statement construction: you’d think S but T.
<br><i>Magic, like war, guarantees peril and not success.</i>
<p><b>...Purhret sruyn nemene thal he; khyet nawar senkwai, hinnar kwon nawar thet ar keʔkwai he tyaur tser nonpreʔ he.</b>
<br>power only energetic spirit be / if he make-see then therefore he craft SUB reveal be neither this.one real be
<br><i>...The Power is a spiritual force; if it manifests visually, this is an appearance that it generates, not a reality. </i>
<br><b>Wau ram nawar pwir kwai huy kwaiʔen; nawar wau proy pwir frun huy frunen.</b>
<br>other person he might see or see-not / he other thing might touch or touch-not
<br><i>It may or may not be visible to other persons, nor affect physical subtances. </i>
<br><b>Koykwar kwor laurthal pwer warfen nye ʔarkhel nyor purhun thaiʔar he nreken wauthur. </b>
<br>you should consider both matter of world less-than good-place worthy be and very differ
<br><i>Consider that the material world is inferior to the Power’s own, and yet alien to it. </i>
<br><b>Tulpyey fu hil sloʔhyiʔ; pwer tulpyey fu thu themram thur tsomen kwon tulpyey fu thu siʔfrun mur nrauhluʔ nreken tultsene murfen senpir ar fwai, hlim pral ortsam huy, mur fwai.</b>
<br>we water next.to compare / both we water in iliu like live-not but we water in direct can dim.-act also our ability extend tool (boat fishnet example among) can use
<br><i>We might make an analogy to water: we do not live in water like the iliu, but we can directly act in it to a small extent, and use tools such as boats or fishnets to extend our capabilities. </i>
<br><b>Koyne hrew hyet hluʔ<i> </i>ar nimthal mautne fwai he.</b>
<br>your request finish do SUB worker such tool be
<br><i>The Workers who will actually execute your requests are such tools. </i>
<br><b>Pwer kyor tulnawar warfen ken thal tyun syal nreken tulpyey thur nrum heʔen— tulnawar purhret thet ken triʔ ar fwai he.</b>
<br>both also they matter and spirit part have but we like animal be.not / they power craft and discard SUB tool be
<br><i>They too have a material and spiritual components, but they are not animals such as ourselves— they are tools which the Power creates and may discard.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Nyekhen">The quotable Nyekhen</a></h3>
<a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Nyekhen">Nyekhen</a> is a culture hero, an ancient general who has been remembered for 2500 years for his courage, loyalty, and bravado. He was actually <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Krw%C5%8B">Krwŋese</a>; for what’s known of him historically see the Almeopedia.
<p>Though Nyekhen disdained speeches and rhetoric— see the first two quotes— he was as known for his sayings as for his deeds. A selection follows. Compare also to the same sentences translated in the <a href="Le.htm">Lé grammar</a>.
<blockquote>
<b>Nwai fretuy he; pwer nar mur ħwewn har kroy senphaut kwon muren rit fwai.</b>
<br>word mad-ancestor be / both that.one can convince man sword raise however can-not teach use
<br><i>Words are devils, which may lead a man to pick up a sword; but they can never teach him to use it. </i>
</blockquote>
(Advised by an enemy envoy to surrender)
<blockquote>
<b>Hintser har nye nwai sruyn fwuy khyet yo kroy phuy.</b>
<br>therefore man of word only wind if you sword sheath
<br><i>A man’s words are just wind, if his sword is sheathed. </i>
</blockquote>
(After someone advocated using a ruse in battle)
<blockquote>
<b>Pyey sruyn orħet fwai. Na ħet: pwi swaum tyai he.</b>
<br>I only one trick use / that trick / more.than enemy strong be
<br><i>I only use one trick. That trick is to be stronger than the enemy. </i>
</blockquote>
(Asked if he had a backup plan in case a charge failed)
<blockquote>
<b>Tsre.</b>
<br>die
<br><i>We die. </i>
</blockquote>
(Asked if he ever felt fear)
<blockquote>
<b>Khyet kwar kwor krem wau fuy hinnar kwar syer fyaulen kwet.</b>
<br>if you should cause other fear therefore you that.idea must-not worry
<br><i>Cause fear, and you need never worry about that. </i>
<p><b>Kwon kroy feyram keʔ un tyaur kroytsya he— slor kwon thrau fra nye hafrul nyim tyaur si he.</b>
<br>however sword poor.man benefit un neither sword.user be / same.way however he feather of headdress dress neither bird be
<br><i>A farmer may be given a sword, but it no more makes him a soldier than a feathered headdress makes him a bird.</i>
<p><b>Pwer har thoy hwai phrew ħwim than kwon wau nye nren phepe than.</b>
<br>both man his woman save want fight however other of seize intense fight
<br><i>Men will fight to save their women, but will fight harder to seize other men’s. </i>
<p><b>Har nye thai kroyar swaum hluʔ ar syit he. Kuyfen nrewnsye he. ʔar feyram khyuʔ ar mur hluʔ tsrat.</b>
<br>man of value sword-PP enemy deal.with SUB way be / cruel.state coward be / every poor.man win-PP can do evil
<br><i>The measure of a man is how he faces an armed foe. Cruelty is cowardice: any peasant can abuse the defeated. <br></i>
<p><b>Pwer har nit huy nurtyun thu kroy fwai tsre orken pret fyat thu petfen fwai tsre. Tser huy nar fuy lye?</b>
<br>both man moment among hour in sword use die alternative ten year in old-state use die / this.one among that.one fear Q
<br><i> To die in a moment or an hour from the blade, or over a decade from old age? Which is more to be feared? </i>
</blockquote>
(Before his last battle, told that the enemy had more men)
<blockquote>
<b>Hintser pwi tulpyey pwit tsrear syal.</b>
<br>therefore more.than we many die-PP have
<br><i> Then they will have more corpses. </i>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></h2>
<table>
<tr><td>pt</td> <td>particle</td></tr>
<tr><td>cl</td> <td>clitic</td></tr>
<tr><td>nv</td> <td>noun-verb— when searching, use the verb form! </td></tr>
<tr><td>#</td> <td>quantifier/number</td></tr>
<tr><td>temp </td> <td>time expression</td></tr>
<tr><td>loc</td> <td>locative</td></tr>
<tr><td>cj</td> <td>conjunction</td></tr>
<tr><td>asp</td> <td>aspect particle</td></tr>
<tr><td>mod</td> <td>modal particle</td></tr>
</table>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td>a</td>
<td>pt </td>
<td>vocative</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ar</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>subordinating particle; as a verb suffix, usually passive</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>-en</td>
<td>cl</td>
<td>negation morpheme</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>grace</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fat</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>behind; hidden</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fatħel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>conspiracy (esp. that behind the 2680 revolution) [‘behind door’]<br><i>fat</i><i>ħ</i><i>elram</i> conspirator</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fau</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>sneak, creep, lurk<br><i>hyut fau</i> sneak around</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>faum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>wonder, marvel</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>faumne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>wonderful, marvellous</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fauʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>owe something
<br>
<i>X Y keʔ Z fauʔ</i> X owes Z to Y<br><i>pe fauʔ </i>forgive a debt </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fauʔram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>debtor</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fauʔtsal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>debt [‘owe-amount’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>state or condition</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Fertur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Verduria [from Kebreni <i>Verdura</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ferturram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Verdurian (person)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fey</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>poor<br><i>feyram </i>poor person, peasant</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fi</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>crime, sin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fil</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>stab, pierce, puncture</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fill, pack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fimar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>full</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fine</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>sinful, vicious</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>firam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>criminal, sinner</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fiʔ</td>
<td>temp</td>
<td>when</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fo</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>nose</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>foy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>intend, expect</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fra</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>feather</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>frai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bag, sack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>frauʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>circle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fraslin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>quill; quill pen [‘feather bone’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fret</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>mad, crazy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fretuy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mad ancestor, demon</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>frey</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>foot</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>freʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cotton</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fril</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>comet</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>frim</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>still</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>friw</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>travel, visit</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>from</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>foolish, idiotic</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fromram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>fool, idiot</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>froy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>know (things)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>frul</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>head</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>frun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>touch, affect</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fruʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>drink<br><i>hyet fruʔ </i>drink down, finish (a drink)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fruʔso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>tavern, pub [‘drink-house’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>water</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fuħin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pump [‘water machine’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>(offer) sacrifice (to)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Funuy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>second emperor of Krwŋ (local <i>Fwnoy</i>) [‘sacrifice to ancestors’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fur</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>your (familiar)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fut</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>yellow</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fuy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fear, be afraid of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>be afraid to, hesitate to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fwai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>use, employ; tool</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>with, using</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fwar</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>be sorry, regret
<br>
<i>Pyey lyai fwar </i>I’m so sorry</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fwun</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>dark</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fwuy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>wind, breeze; blow</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fwuyħin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bellows [‘blow machine’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyat</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>year</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyaul</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>must, is forced to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyen</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>prepare, get ready</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>md</td>
<td>get ready to, prepare to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyenhar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pre-puberty rites and instructions for boys [‘prepare-man’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyer</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a piebird chick</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyeʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>meat</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyir</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>salt</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyirne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>salty</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyiʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fly, soar</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyor</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>expend, pay (something), make an effort<br><i>hyut fyor </i>distribute; spread around<br><i>tur fyor </i>pay back, ransom<br><i>Pyey sroy fyor</i> It took a lot out of me</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>fyuy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>swim</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hafrul</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>turban, headdress [‘wrap head’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hahat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>wrap<br><i>pe hahat</i> unwrap</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>shell</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hait</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>surprise </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ham</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wall</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>han</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>purity</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hanne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>pure; moral, right</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>har</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>man (adult male); husband</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>laugh</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>he</td>
<td>v</td>
<td>be, be correct, be the case— copulative, never existential; interrogative is <i>tsun</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hen</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>bright, shining</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>henkrau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>planet [‘bright star’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Hentwor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>first king of Siad βo, locally <i>Hendwor </i>[‘shining glory’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hereʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a plant yielding a bitter extract used to flavor pell beer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>het</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>six</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hew</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>snow</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hey</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>flower</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>heʔen</td>
<td>v</td>
<td>no; it’s not</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hil</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>next to; side</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hilhyor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>uncle [‘next to father’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hilsyan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>aunt [‘next to mother’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>him</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>silent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hinkin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>consequence, inference [‘therefore-idea’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hinnar</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>therefore (when following the if clause)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hintser</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>therefore (when preceding the if clause)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hit</td>
<td>temp</td>
<td>now</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hlat</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bread</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hlau</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>come, arrive</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hlen</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>rain</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hler</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>robe, dress</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hlim</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ship, boat<br><i>hlimnir </i>send by ship</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hluʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>do, act, operate; treat, face, deal with<br><i>hyet hluʔ </i>execute, fulfill <br><i>tur hluʔ </i>reciprocate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hluʔnwai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>verb [‘act word’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hluʔtsrat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>mistreat, abuse [‘do-evil’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hon</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>silk [Lé <i>h</i><i>ō</i><i>n</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hoy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>phrase, term, compound word</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrat</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>cut, sliced; a river (from its appearance cut into the forest) </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>voice; manner of speaking</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hre</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>flow; deform (with heat or pressure)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrel</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>instruct (esp. religiously), mentor</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hren</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>doubt, be skeptical</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrenar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>dubious, suspicious</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrenne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>skeptical</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hreram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>priest, mentor [‘instructor’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>capability, power</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Hretkrau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the planet Hírumor [‘powerful star’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hretne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>powerful; magical</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hretram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>magician, adept with the <i>purhret</i> [‘power-man’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrew</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>ask for, request (something)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hreʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>farm, plot, field</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hril</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>smell; odor</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>long yam</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrol</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>normal, customary</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrolen</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>special; unusual</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrom</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>hard, tough, durable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hromyai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wire [‘hard thread’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrowt</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>104976 = 18*18*18*18</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hroy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>think, believe, opine</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hrum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>manhood ordeal</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>place</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hur</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>green</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Hurtso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a river in Uytai [‘green river’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>huy</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>among; or</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>huywon</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the holiday between two full moons [‘among moons’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>huʔ</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>expression of surprise</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hwai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>woman</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Hwaitai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Bé lands; Belesao [‘woman-land’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hwar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the hwar tree; cloth made from its bark</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hwaut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>remove (a layer or cover), take off<br><i>hyet hwaut </i>strip completely, take it all off<br><i>rai hwaut </i>undress</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hwehew</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>quake, shiver; shake with fear</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>flesh, muscle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyau</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>top, on top</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyauhyor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>grandfather [‘top-father’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyaulu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>village headman, chief [‘top of village’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyaulyot</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>supper, late meal [‘upper meal’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyaune</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>upper</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyaunim</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>boss, foreman, master craftsman [‘top-work’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyaunyen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>blanket, cover [‘cover-bed’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyauphuʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>despot (title of <i>ħ</i><i>wentai</i> rulers) [‘top leader’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyaur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>go, leave, depart; (as transitive) visit, go see<br><i>tur hyaur </i>go back, return</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyautsur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cloak, tunic [‘over-shoulder’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyausu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>top, blouse, shirt [‘top-cloth’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyausyan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>grandmother [‘top-mother’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyausye</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>chest ornament [‘over-heart’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyauthun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mountaintop, summit, peak</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>chair, stool</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyem</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>calm, inner peace</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Hyemsur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the religion of Syalenar, dating to the 1800s</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyemne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>calm, peaceful</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyet</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>finish, end </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyetħoy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>eat breakfast [‘finish-fast’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>penis</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyiʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>test, try out, attempt; draft</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>father</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyorsyan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>parent, parents [‘father-mother’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>beg</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>please</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyurram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>beggar</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>scatter, spread</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyutpham</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>manuscript [‘test book’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>hyuʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>breathe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ash, ashes</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sand</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Ħalnret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a port in Nyandai, locally <i>Gondre</i> [‘sandy shore’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ford</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħanphor</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>ford [‘make-ford’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bay, inlet</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Ħartsiʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the main city of Siad βo, locally <i>Ɣardze</i> [‘bay town’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħat</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>stick, rod</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħaun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>kiss</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħaur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>clean, wash</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħaurar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>clean, washed</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>door</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>spirit, heart; quiet or feminine part of soul</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħenne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>spiritual; passive; feminine</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħet</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>trick, scheme</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħew</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>skin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>machine, device</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħit</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>freeze</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħo</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the ko bean</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħol</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>meet</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħolram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bourgeois; from a family entitled to a <i>ħ</i><i>olso </i>seat [‘meeting person’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħolso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Nyanese city council [‘meeting house’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħolwor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>councillor [‘meeting lord’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħom</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>big, large</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Ħomswiʔnyounar(tai)</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Neinuoi [‘big surrounded-by-sea (land)’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Ħomtso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>chief river of Uytai [‘big river’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħon</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>stay, remain</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħor</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>pay (someone)<br>hyet <i>ħ</i><i>or </i>pay off, completely pay
<br>
<i>hlau </i><i>ħ</i><i>or </i>pay (to the speaker)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħot</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>eighteen</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħoy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fast, refrain </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrain</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>summer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>gram, a squash</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrau</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>difficult, hard</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrauʔen</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>easy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>war</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>west</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrew</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>wake</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħril</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>force, impel</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrin</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>short, low</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrinhroy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>poem [‘short thought’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrinħruy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>record, note [‘short write’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrinram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>dwarf, elcar [‘short person’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrit</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mocassin, soft shoe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħriw</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>sour, acidic</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrot</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mouse</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħroy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>(feel) shame (for wrongdoing), repent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħroyar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>shameful. scandalous</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħroyne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>shame-faced, repentant</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrul</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>seemingly, seem to be</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrun</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>in pieces (of wood, documents, machines, etc.); scrap </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħrunmon</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>brush [‘scrap wood’]
<br>
<i>Ħrunmon Nrulso</i> the Uytainese academy of magic</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħruy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>scrape; write</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħu</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>I (familiar)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħul</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>heal, cure</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fail, flop<br><i>ħ</i><i>wer </i><i>ħ</i><i>um </i>falter</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħun</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>indecency, immorality</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħunne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>indecent, immoral</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħunlai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>whore, prostitute [‘indecent girl’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħunlainin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>red light district [‘whore neighborhood’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħur</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>may (has permission to); permit, allow</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwa</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>carry, bear<br><i>hlau</i> <i>ħ</i><i>wa </i>bring (here)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwen</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>love, honor</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwenar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>beloved, respected, venerated</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwentai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>patriotism; despotic movement of 3200s</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Ħwentet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>first emperor of Uytai</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwer</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>inchoative</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwet</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>then, later</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwewn</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>convince, persuade</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>want, be willing to; negated by <i>phim</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwiyt</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>want to but can’t [<i>ħ</i><i>wim + net</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwon</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>where</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ħwul</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>(make) peace; (archaic) truce<br><i>pe </i><i>ħ</i><i>wul</i> break a truce<i> </i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>keke</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>frequently, habitually</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ken</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>along with, and; accompany</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kenkyow</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>companion [‘accompany-friend’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ker</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>roll</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kew</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>at intervals</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>keʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>benefit, help; give (someone)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>for, to; per</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>keʔram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>assistant; leader of a Hyemsurist school [‘helper’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>keʔkwai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>reveal, make appear [‘sight-give’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>keʔwim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>trade [‘give-obtain’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>new, young </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kharfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>novelty</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Kharkhel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Ereláe [‘new world’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kharwal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>youth</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Khartsiʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the capital of ancient Saitai, native <i>Khɔrči </i>[‘new town’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khe</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>father of </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>corner, niche; one of the cardinal directions</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wolf</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Khepri</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Kebri [Kebreni]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kher</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>yard, enclosure; geometric figure</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Khesur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>first king of the middle period (2680) [‘father of social harmony’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pie, torte; a shallow bowl</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khew</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>hat, cap</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kheʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>cough</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khim</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>of the aforementioned, e.g. <i>lyut khim </i>‘some of them’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khlar</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>disbelieve, think not</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khlau</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>slow</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khlaut</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>winter</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khloy</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>general future particle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khofen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>stupidity</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khol</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>high hat or helmet of royalty; to be crowned, to accede</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khokho</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>stupid, dumb</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khoram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>stupid person, dunce</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khowm</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>bad, malevolent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khowmhil</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>to the left, on the left side</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khoyt</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sheep</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khoʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>eclipse</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bless
<br>
<i>Koykwar keʔ khrai </i>common semiformal greeting<br><i>(NP) khrai </i>a more colloquial greeting</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khram</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bother, hassle; (archaic) turmoil</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khraʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bark; hard peel or rind</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khret</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>the most </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrit</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>smooth</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khro</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>she (respectful)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khroy</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>her (respectful)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrum</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>below, under</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrumkeʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>minister, steward [‘under-help’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrumne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>lower</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrumnyer</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>morning [‘below-noon’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrumnur</td>
<td>temp</td>
<td>before, previous to [‘below-time’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrumne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>low, base</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrumreʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pre-dawn, the hour(s) before dawn</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khrumso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ministry, office; official or commercial building [‘minister house’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khruʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>window</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khu</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>throw<br><i>keʔkhu </i>toss away (to someone)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khul</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>become, turn into</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khulhar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>coming of age ceremony for boys, at 15 [‘become-man’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khulhwai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>coming of age ceremony for girls, at puberty [‘become-woman’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a notseh ox</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>walk<br><i>hlau khut </i>come, arrive by walking<br><i>tur khut </i>walk back, walk home</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khutsyit</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>road, street [‘walk-way’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khuy</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>change of state (internal)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khuʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>kind, type</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khuʔnwai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>adjective, modifier [‘type-word’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khwai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wing</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khwel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a large fruit, orange and tart inside, with a yellow skin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khweʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>annoy, aggravate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khwiʔ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>angry, mad</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khwiʔfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>anger, wrath</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khwoy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>trash, slag</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khwur</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>black</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khyai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pride</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khyaine</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>proud</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khyal</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>burn, roast</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khyet</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>if; in that case</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>khyuʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>win, defeat; victory</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>idea, concept; sentence</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kit</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ice</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>klaʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>hope</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>klim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>taste; nibble</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>klimlyot</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>appetizer, hors d’oeuvre [‘nibble-meal’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>klur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>find, discover</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kloy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a papyrus-like paper; the reed it comes from; document, page</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ko</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>metal</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kol</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>push</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kor</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>submit; be a vassal; hold public office</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>korar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>prone; vassal, non-independent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>koren</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>free, independent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>korram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>vassal (lord); public official</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kortai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>vassal or incorporated nation</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>koy</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>your</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>koykwar</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>you (literary) [‘your’ + <i>kwar</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>koyne</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>your (literary)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>koyt</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>poor, wretched, miserable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Krai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the moon Iliacáš</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kraiwal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>month (17-day period of Iliacáš)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kram</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>tie, knot<br><i>pe kram </i>untie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kran</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>virtue, decency </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kranne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>virtuous, decent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Krantet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the capital of Nyandai [‘virtuous god’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>krat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>cut<br><i>hyet krat </i>cut to pieces</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>krau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>star</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kraur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>root</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>krem</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>cause, make (someone)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kren</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fold, bend</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kret</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>spin (thread)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kretkwer</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>spindle [‘spin-wheel’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kreʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>millet</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>krim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bring (something), fetch<br><i>tur krim </i>bring back</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>krimħun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>seduce, lead astray [‘bring immorality’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>krit</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>sow, plant; early spring</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kritsil</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>invest [‘sow money’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kritsilwar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>group of investors [‘invest body’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kriʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>choose, select</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kroy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sword, blade</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kroyar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>armed</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kroytsya</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>swordsman, soldier</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kroywar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>army [‘sword body’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Krun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the ancient city and nation of Krwŋ in northern Uytai</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kruy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>belly, abdomen</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cup</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kuy</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>cruel, malicious</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>see</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>box, chest, trunk</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwar</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>you (respectful)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwau</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>respect</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwaʔ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>outside, foreign</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwaʔram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>foreigner</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwaʔtai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>foreign lands, abroad</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwaʔtet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Dnetic spirits [‘foreign gods’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwel</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>just so you know (friendly warning)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwen</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>follow; come in exchange<br><i>Run pyey hlau yukwen</i> The dog followed me home </td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>in return for, because of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwer</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wheel</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwet</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>worry (about), concern</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwey</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>eat<br><i>hyet kwey </i>eat up, eat everything</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>order, send for</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>hair</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwol</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>unchaste; immoral, sinful</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwolen</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>chaste; moral, abstemious</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwon</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>however</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwor</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>should, ought to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwow</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>fat</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kwul</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>strangle<br><i>tswun kwul </i>strangle to death</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kyam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>castle, fort</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kyau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>holy place, shrine</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kyaune</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>holy, sacred</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kyauso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>temple</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kyor</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>also, too</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>kyow</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>friend</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>maiden, girl</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lairam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>procurer, operator of a brothel</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lalya</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>baby</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>laur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>check, test, confirm<br><i>hyet laur </i>check thoroughly (implies success)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>laurthal</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>consider, contemplate, ponder [‘check (in) mind’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ler</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>square; (math) times</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>leyseʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Lé language </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>leʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>beetle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lin</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>happy, content</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lit</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wife</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>liw</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>leaf</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>manner, style</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>loy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>serve, obey</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>loyhret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>magic, service to the <i>purhret</i> [‘serve-power’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>loylai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>maid, maidservant [‘serve-girl’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>loyram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>servant</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>village, settlement</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>succeed, accomplish </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyai</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>too much</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>vagina, vulva</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyat</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>rifter; stubby nose</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyatseʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>rifter pidgin [‘rifter talk’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyaun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>neck</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyaur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>cry</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lye</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>question particle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>light</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyew</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>flee, escape<br><i>hyet lyew</i> get away
<br>
<i>hyut lyew </i>scatter in all directions<br><i>tur lyew </i>run back (home)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyil</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>tongue</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyor</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>glad, content</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Lyortso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the main river of Siad βo, locally <i>Yurdzo</i> [‘glad river’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyot</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>dinner (usually at noon), lunch, meal</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyoy</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>occasionally but not habitually </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyum</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>potato</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>paint</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyurnyau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>painting (physical object)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyurtsya</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>painter</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>lyut</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>some, a few</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mait</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>harvest; yield; late fall</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mama</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>babble, jabber</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>man</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>bold, brave</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>maur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>show interest in; care for; occupy oneself with (argument structure opposite ours: X interests Y = Y X <i>maur</i>)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>maurar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>interesting, valuable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>maut</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>to such an extent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mautne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>such, that kind</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>men</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>close, shut<br><i>hyet men </i>shut completely (e.g. a door or valve)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mer</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>fruit</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>met</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>seed, grain</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mey</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>meigrass</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>meʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bean; pill</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mil</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>live, be alive</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>min</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>catch, trap </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mir</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>attend; woo, court</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mirlai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>girlfriend, beloved</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mirram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>boyfriend, beloved</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mon</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wood</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>moy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>milk (animal or human)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mum</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>lip</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mur</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>can, able to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>murfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ability, capacity [‘can-ness’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>murwal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>opportunity, time (to act) [‘can-time’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mwai</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>very, quite</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mwan</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>sit; ride
<br><i>hlau mwan </i>come (by horse)
<br><i>ħ</i><i>wer mwan </i>sit down</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mwat</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>great</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Mwatwor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>legendary king of Srethun; also used as a title [‘great lord’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mwel</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>here</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mwen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>evening</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mweʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>platform, stage, daïs</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mwor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>whale</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>mwum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>build, construct</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>myar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cat</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>myet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ko tofu</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>myiw</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>rot, ferment, fester
<br><i>hyet myiw </i>fall apart (from rot)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>myiwar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>rotten, fermented</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>myom</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>branch</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>myul</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>wet, moist</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>myulnwet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ink [‘wet soot’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>na</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>that </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nahun</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>where (location subordinator)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nalai</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>she (literary) [‘that girl’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nalaine</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>her (literary) [<i>nalai</i> + adj.]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>noob; boy in process of <i>fyenhar</i>; cadet, recruit, apprentice</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nane</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>his (literary) [‘that’ + adj.]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>that one</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>fire</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>naur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>hurt, damage</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nawal</td>
<td>temp</td>
<td>when (time subordinator)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nawar</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>he (literary) [‘that body’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>-ne</td>
<td>cl</td>
<td>adjectivizer for nouns</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mat, pad</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>neme</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>move; energy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nemene</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>dynamic, alive; non-material</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>net</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>must not</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>work; job</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nimthal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>worker (servant to Powers) [‘work spirit’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>neighborhood, quarter, zone</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nir</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>send (something)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nirtet</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bless (divinely)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nit</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>moment, instance</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>non</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>true, right, correct<br><i>non he</i> yes, right<br><i>non srai </i>‘correct form’ (of glyphs), i.e the earliest</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nonen</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>false, wrong, incorrect</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nonkin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>fact, a true statement</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nonpreʔ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>real, actual [‘true-exist’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>notseʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the notseh cow</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>noy</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>why</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>blood</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nral</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>break; be jumbled or jagged<br><i>hyet nral </i>break apart, break completely </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nralanthun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the eastern mountains [‘broken mountains’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a pair, a couple; both</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrat</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>one’s own, private; peculiar<br><i>nrat thal thu </i>on someone’s own terms, in their own mind</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrau</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>a little; tried to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>try to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nraun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>lie, recline<br><i>ħ</i><i>wer nraun</i><b> </b>lie down</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nre</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>two</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nreħot</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>sixteen </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nreken</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>and (in both-and clauses) </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nren</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>seize, loot</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrepret</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>eight</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>coast, shore</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nreʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>answer, respond </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrewn</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>lack, be out of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>without</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrewnson</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>uncounted (because of difficulty, or no one’s gotten round to it)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrewnsye</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>coward</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrewnwor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sovereign, independent [‘without lord’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nri</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>soft; weak</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrit</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>5832 =18*18*18</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nriw</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>louse</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nron</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>observe, watch; read<br><i>Koykwar uy nron </i>The ancestors watch you (a common closing)<br><i>(voc) nron</i> (the standard response)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nroy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>table, desk</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrul</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>learn, study</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrulkher</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>geometry [‘study of figures’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrulkrau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>astronomy [‘study of stars’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrulkraune</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>astronomical</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrullyur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>painting [‘study of paint’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrulnonsrai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>etymology [‘study of correct shapes’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrulso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>study center, school, salon [‘learning house’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrulswi</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>music [‘study of singing’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrulthya</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>art, architecture [‘study of decoration’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrultyun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>lesson [‘study hour’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrulwar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>science [‘study of bodies’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nrum</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>animal, beast</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>day, daytime; time</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nurħin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>clock [‘day-machine’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nurtyun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>hour (the Uytainese hour is 6/7 of ours) [‘day-fraction’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>word, syllable, glyph, symbol</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwal</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>prone, prostate; oppressed, devastated</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwalhyur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>supplicate, implore, plead[‘prone-beg’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwau</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bore, tire</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwauar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>bored, tired</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwaune</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>boring, tedious</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>soot</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwiʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>lake, lagoon</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>smoke</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>soil, earth, mud; brown</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwunlo</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>promiscuous woman, ‘man-izer’ </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwunram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Tžuro or Fananaki [‘brown people’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nwunseʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Fananaki language</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>breast, chest</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyaisu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>poncho, short top [‘breast-cloth’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyan</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>pretty, lovely </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyanlai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pretty girl, darling, sweetheart</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyanram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Nyanese, someone from Nyandai</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nyantai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a country southwest of Uytai, locally <i>Nyandai</i> [‘pretty land’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nyanteʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Nyan peninsula</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nyanthun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the mountains of Nyan</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>dry</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyatar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>dried meat</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>image, picture</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nye</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>genitive particle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nyekhen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a Krwŋgese culture hero [‘(son) of wolf’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nyekyau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>first emperor of Krwŋ, locally <i>Nyekyɔu</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bed</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyer</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>noon; zenith, high point; the noon hour; (planets) opposition</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>(extended) family</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyew</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>sew</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyeyt</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>belong to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyil</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>thin (not fat), lanky</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>dress, put on</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nyoi</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a river in Phetai</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyor</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>less than</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyoun</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>surround, be surrounded</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyounne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>surrounding</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyoy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>offer, sell</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyoytsal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>selling price (i.e. before haggling) [‘offer-amount’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nyuam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>barbarian conquerors of Uytai in the 2300s [Mnese]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>nyun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>dance<br><i>nyunlai </i>dancing girl</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>or</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>one<br><i>or thin </i>first</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>orħot</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>seventeen</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>orken</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>or (in either-or clauses)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>orkrai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the first day of a <i>kraiwal</i>; full Iliacáš</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>orpret</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>nine</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ortrau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the first day of a <i>trauwal</i>; full moon (of Iliažë)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ortsam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>example, instance, case [‘one thing’]<br><i>ortsam huy</i> for example</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ortsum</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>eleven</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pat</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>snake</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pau</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>rule; <i>(archaic</i>) interpret, speak (for the ancestors)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Paukhel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>first large-scale ruler; title of late Krwŋese emperors [‘rule-world’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pauram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>king, ruler; (<i>archaic</i>) spokesman (for the ancestors)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pautsiʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>capital [‘king-city’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pautyun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>tribute, taxation [‘king’s portion’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pauʔen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the attitude of questioning or limiting authority [‘not-ruling’] </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pe</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>undo, cancel (an edict or operation)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pema</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>translate, interpret [‘un-babble’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pemaram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>translator</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pet</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>old</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>petfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>(old) age, senility</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pethet</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>unmake, destroy [‘un-make’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pey</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>be precious (to), be valuable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>peyne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>precious, valuable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pha</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>reject, refuse</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the piebird, a species of poultry</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pham</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>strip (not clothes), peel; book</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phamhret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>lore, cantrips [‘book power’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phamkrat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>strip (off), peel [‘peel-cut’]<br><i>tswun pham </i>flay</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>jar, amphora</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phaul</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>liver</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phaur</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>first (in first...then constructions)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phaut</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>tall, high; long (in time)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phautfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>height</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phautwal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>length (in time); time</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pell (grain)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phen</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>safe; healthy, doing all right
<br><i>Phen he </i>Goodbye</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phepe</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>intense, hard</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>harder, all the more so</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pher</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>previous, former, earlier</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phernur</td>
<td>temp</td>
<td>yesterday [‘previous day’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Phet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the chief city on the Tsyeʔ; locally <i>Pheʔ</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Phettai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>The region southwest of Uytai, locally <i>Phetai</i> [‘Phet land’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phil</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>line, row; line of verse</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>philne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>straight, linear</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phim</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>not want</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phlat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>send a message or letter</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phlaʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>drool, slobber; (slang) jabber, talk like an idiot</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phlem</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>back (of body)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phlet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>room, cell</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pho</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>river valley</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phol</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>skip</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phor</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>put together (without much effort), jury-rig; cf. <i>thet<br>prow phor</i> throw together something to eat<br><i>pe phor </i>take apart</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phot</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>stink, be filthy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>photram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>barbarian [‘stinky people’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phow</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>open<br><i>hyet phow </i>completely open (e.g. a door or valve)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phoyn</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bounce<br><i>tur phoyn </i>rebound</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phral</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>support, hold up</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phran</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>night; darkness</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phrau</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>heavy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phre</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>take care of (someone); show compassion</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phrem</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>because of; therefore</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phremkin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>reason [‘because-idea’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the <i>tsai</i> (tea) plant, or its leaves</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phrew</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>save, rescue</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phrut</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>target, goal</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phruʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>steal</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phruʔram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>thief</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>dig</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phun</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>five</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phunħot</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>thirteen</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>hit, beat
<br><i>tswun phut </i>beat to death</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phuy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>sheath, sheathe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phuʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>lead, manage, conduct</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phuʔram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>leader, manager</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phwai</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>auspicious</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phwaun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bear (animal)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phwer</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cougar, mountain lion</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phwiʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>take, grab</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>phwut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>betray</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pil</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>imprison, jail</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pilhun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>prison, jail</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pir</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>long (in space)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pirfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>length, extent, size; space or room (something takes up)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Pirthunswiʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Smë rift lake [‘long rift lake’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pluʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>suck</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pol</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>reward, prize</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pon</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ass, buttocks</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>poy</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>my (familiar, respectful)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prai</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>beautiful; perfect</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pral</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>net, web</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pran</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>gladden, comfort </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>luxury, extravagance</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>praune</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>luxurious, extravagant; expensive</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prem</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>hill</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pret</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>ten</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>preʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>exist, (existential) be, there is/are; negated by <i>twey</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prin</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>hide</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prinenar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>hidden; sheer, transparent </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prinphlat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>spy (on) [‘hide-message’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>priw</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>well... (marks dispreferreds)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prom</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fit, be appropriate to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prow</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>cook</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>proy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>thing, object, item</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prul</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wagon, cart</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>prum</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>got as far as</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>as far as</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pruym</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>boot</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pruʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>tail</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pur</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>good, virtuous, benevolent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>purhil</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>to the right, on the right side</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>purhret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>spiritual power, <i>vyoža </i>[‘good power’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>purhun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the spiritual world, the world of the Powers [‘good place’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>purpau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pragmatism, reform [‘good rule’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>purpham</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>manual of magic [‘good book’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Pursut</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a city on the upper Homtso, capital of Krwŋ [‘good fate’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Purtyai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>an epic king [‘good-strong’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>puruy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>good ancestor</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>purwal</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>celebrate, rejoice [‘good time’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>puy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>hammer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwan</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>strange, odd; eerie</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwat</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>path, trail</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwatkloy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>map [‘path-paper’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwaʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>boil
<br><i>prow pwaʔ </i>cook by boiling, simmer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwan</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bend
<br><i>hyet pwan </i>bend flat</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwanar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>bent, crooked</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Pwanpho</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a city in Siad βo, locally <i>Puempo </i>[‘bent valley’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwer</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>introduces both-and or either-or clauses</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pweʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>fermented ko sauce (similar to soy sauce)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwi</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>more than</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwir</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>might; possibly</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwirne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>possible</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwit</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>many, much</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwithril</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>smelly, odorous [‘much odor’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwitkwin</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>hairy [‘much hair’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwittsal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>column of numbers; list, array</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pwityoʔ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>eventful, bustling [‘much event’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyau</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>jump </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyauhroy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>provoke (thought or reactions); a sudden intellectual leap [‘jump-thought’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyel</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>favor, benefit; be partial to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyelar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>favorite, preferred</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyer</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>provide, distribute, outift</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyerso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>shop; (archaic) depot, storehouse [‘provide-house’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyey</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>I (respectful, literary)<br><i>pyey kwar </i>you and I</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyiʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>pull</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyol</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>late spring</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyor</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>last, final</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyow</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>be sick<br><i>tswun pyow </i>die from an illness</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyowar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>sick, ill</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyowram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sick man; patient</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyul</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>hot, warm</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>east</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Pyunkhrai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the capital of Hlüim, locally <i>Püŋȟrey</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>pyur</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>look! (pragmatic particle of relevance)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>skirt; clothes in general</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>person, people</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rauken</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>nor (in neither-nor clauses)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>raum</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>warm, pleasant. comfortable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rauʔ</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>none, not any; zero</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rauʔthal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>idiot, half-wit [‘no-mind’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rem</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>key</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ren</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>dream</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rewm</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>lose</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>reʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>dawn, sunrise; the dawn hour</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rit</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>teach, instruct</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ritram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>teacher</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ritwar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>spiritual sexual practices of magicians [‘body teaching’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>riʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>put out, douse, extinguish<br><i>hyet riʔ </i>completely extinguish</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rom</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>eye</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>roʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>stand (be standing)
<br><i>ħ</i><i>wer roʔ </i>stand up</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rul</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>speak (to), talk to, address, deal with<br><i>tur rul </i>reply (to)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rulram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ambassador, envoy, emissary [‘speak-person’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>rum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>feel</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>run</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>dog</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ruy</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>good, appropriate, fine; well; (with inchoative) finally, at last</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>forest, woods</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>saim</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the sammule (similar to a donkey)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sair</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>exercise, sport, play (games of athletic skill)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sairhun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>gymnasium, sports arena</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Saitai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>an ancient kingdom on the upper Ħomtso, native <i>Sɔitsɔi </i>[‘forest land’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>saiʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>grow</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>san</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>smart, intelligent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sanfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>intelligence</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>saur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>fish</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>saut</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>wise</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sautram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sage, wise man</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sen-</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>causative for adjectives</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senhan</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>purify</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senhen</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>brighten; illuminate, light</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senħrin</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>lower, shorten [‘make short’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senkhol</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>crown, make someone king </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senkhrum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>abase [‘make low’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senkwai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>make visible [‘make see’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senor</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>unite, join [‘make one’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senphaut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>raise, lift [‘make high’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senpir</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>lengthen, extend (in space) [‘make long’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senprai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>beautify, perfect [‘make beautiful’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>senruy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fix, make good, work it out [‘make good’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sewl</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>float</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ser</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>far (away), distant</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>serthune</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>deep inside; secret, esoteric</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>set</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>knife</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>seʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>speak (words); speech, language</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>si</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bird</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sil</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>she (familiar)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sim</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cheapness, miserliness</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>simar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>cheap; miserly</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>simram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>miser</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sin</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>the least</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sinseʔ</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>at least; you gotta admit [‘least-say’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sit</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>sharp</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>siw</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>should, obliged to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>siʔ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>immediate, sudden</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>siʔfrun</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>direct, straightforward [‘sudden touch’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>run, dash, rush<br><i>hyut slai </i>run all around<br><i>hlau slai </i>run here, come running</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slaum</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>dirty</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>step, level</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sleʔ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>rich, fertile</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Sleʔpho</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a country east of Uytai, locally <i>Siad </i><i>β</i><i>o </i>[‘fertile valley’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sleʔseʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Siadese</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sleʔso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>financial bubble [after Nyanese entrepreneur Sleso]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bone</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slor</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>in the same way</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slorfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>conventionality, sameness</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slorħruy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>copy (a text), publish [‘same-write’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slorne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>same, similar; conventional </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>slorthet</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>copy, reproduce (an item) [‘same-craft’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sloʔ</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>as much as</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sloʔhyiʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>compare [‘as much as-test’]<br><i>X Y Z hil sloʔhyiʔ </i>X compares Y to Z</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sluy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a type of songbird similar to a sparrow [from its cry]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sluʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pell beer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>so</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>house, home; (in combinations) building, place</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sol</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>son, heir</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sollai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>daughter, heiress [‘heir-girl’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Solsrin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>greatest emperor of Krwŋ, locally <i>Susirn </i>[‘son of heaven’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>son</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>count, measure; population (amount)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sonhoy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>numeral [‘counting term’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>someʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Sumë or Smë people; a jacket or coat </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sor</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>at least once </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>soren</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>not once, never</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>srai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>form, frame, shape</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sraine</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>(of men) muscular, buff; (of women) shapely</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sral</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>rub, stroke</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>brother</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sraun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>silver</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sraut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>forget<br><i>hyet sraut </i>forget entirely</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>srem</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>ask (something), inquire</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sret</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bury</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>srin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sky, heavens</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Srethun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>capital of Uytai [‘burial place’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>srintet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sun, Ënomai [‘sky-god’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>srintetrun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the planet Vereon [‘sun-dog’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>srit</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>squeeze</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sroy</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>much, a lot</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sru</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>topic particle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>srut</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>peach</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sruyn</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>only, just </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>su</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cloth, fabric</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sun</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>fast, quick</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Suntso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a river in northern Uytai [‘fast river’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Sunwon</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the moon Naunai [‘fast moon’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>social harmony</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sut</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>fate, luck</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>suʔ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>cold</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swai</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>subordinator for indirect speech</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swal</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>rough, bumpy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swar</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bring, lead to<br><i>tur swar </i>bring back</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Swarkhyuʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>second king of Siad βo, locally <i>Swarγuy </i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swaum</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>enemy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swaur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>wander, roam; meander</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swel</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>look for, search for, seek</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sweʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>smile</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swi</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>sing, song</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swir</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>wax</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swirħat</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>candle [‘wax stick’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swiʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sea</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swiʔko</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>iron [‘sea metal’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Swiʔkyau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a city in the delta [‘sea shrine’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swiʔnyim</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>armor [earlier <i>swiʔkonyim </i>‘ironwear’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swol</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>three</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Swolan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a fundamentalist revival in the 1500s or similar movements later [‘three -an’, i.e. <i>han, kran, twan </i>‘purity, virtue, vigor’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swolħot</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>fifteen</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swolseʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>emphasize, underline [‘say three times’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>swom</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>dull, blunt</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syai</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>general honorific<br><i>syai </i><i>ħ</i><i>wen </i>you (court form)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syailit</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>queen, wife of a noble [‘high-wife’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syal</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>have, possess, own</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syalen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>rejection (of desire or material goods), austerity [‘not having’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Syalenar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>founder of the Hyemsur religion [‘who doesn’t have’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mother</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syaum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>wipe, sweep</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>sye</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>heart; courage, guts; active or masculine part of soul</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syene</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>courageous; active; masculine</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syer</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>that idea </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syit</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>way, method<br><i>N VP ar syit </i>the way for N to VP</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syitfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>set of procedures, system</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syiw</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>sleep</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syol</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fog, be foggy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syom</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>speaker’s desire</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>spot; defect, flaw</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syul</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>above, over</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syulnur</td>
<td>temp</td>
<td>after, later than</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syulnyer </td>
<td>n</td>
<td>afternoon [‘after noon’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>honey</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syunne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>sweet, mellifluous</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>syuʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>bow </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>land, country, nation, kingdom</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>taum</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>brain</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>supernatural being, god</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tetyauthun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the mountains north of Uytai [‘god’s teeth mountains’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>teʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>peninsula</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tha</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fall, drop<br><i>tswun tha </i>fall to one’s death
<br><i>keʔ tha </i>toss (something to someone) </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>value, appreciate; worth</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thaiʔar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>worthy, valuable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thakan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>horse [Ōkmisan <i>htāknejig</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thakanram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Ōkmisan [‘horse people’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>spirit, mind<br><i>tse thal </i>I (court form)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thalħul</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>counsel, admonish, advice</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thalħulram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>council, cabinet</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thalkwai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>remember, recall</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>than</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fight; combat</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thanen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pacifism, tolerance [‘not-fighting’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>shoe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>the</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>you (familiar)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>leg</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thelram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>recruiter, provider of workers [‘leg person’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>them</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>blue</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>themram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>iliu [‘blue person’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Themtai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a nation southeast of Uytai, locally <i>Ťrim </i>[‘iliu land’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>themtet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the planet Vlerëi [‘blue god’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thes</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>grass</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thet</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>make (with effort), craft, produce, create</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thethlim</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>shipyard; name of a city [‘make-ship’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thettsal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cost [‘produce-amount’] </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>theʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>hand</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>theʔne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>at hand, right here</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>theʔthan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>unarmed combat, martial arts [‘hand fight’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>instance, occasion, numerical order</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thir</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>weave; braid</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thirħin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>loom [‘weave machine’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thiʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>disgust, nauseate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thiʔpha</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>hate, abhor [‘disgust-reject’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thley</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>be amused by (argument structure opposite ours: X amuses Y = Y X <i>thley</i>)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thleyne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>amusing, funny</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thluy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>squid</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thluʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>vomit</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tho</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>near, close</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thon</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>solid; grave; careful, well-constructed</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thot</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>drip, percolate; distill</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thotar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>distilled</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thotfruʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>distilled liquor</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thoy</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>his (respectful)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thoʔ</td>
<td>n, a</td>
<td>gold<br><i>Feyram nye thoʔ</i> millet [‘poor man’s gold’, for its resistance to spoilage] </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thrau</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>he (respectful)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thren</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>mix, stir, shake
<br><i>hyet thren </i>mix completely</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>threw</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>remove (an item or obstacle)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>threy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>stone, rock</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thrum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>conquer, occupy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thu</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>in, inside, into; to (cities, countries, etc); enter</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thul</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a small tree with bright pink flowers in the spring</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mountain</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thune</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>interior, inner</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thunswiʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>rift lake [‘mountain sea’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>be similar (takes a conjoined subject); (colloq.) do well enough </td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>like</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thurfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>similarity; example, related case</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thuym</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ear</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thuʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>order, decree; a law</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thwau</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>324 (18*18)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thweʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>hold, grip</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thwil</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>plot, intrigue, store grudges</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thwom</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>dare</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thya</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>adorn, decorate, beautify</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thyaram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>artist, architect</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>thyau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ko milk</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>toħu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>parchment [Lé <i>dółu</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>finger, toe</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tran</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>front</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Trau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the moon Iliažë</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>trauwal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>month (28-day period of Iliažë)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>trem</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>merchandise, cargo</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tren</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>eagle</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>treʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>empty, unpack</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>treʔar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>empty, emptied</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>trin</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>put, place, set<br><i>hyut trin </i>set out all around<br><i>tur trin </i>put back</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>triʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>discard, throw away
<br><i>keʔ triʔ </i>give away <br><i>pe triʔ </i>retrieve, recover</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>trom</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>sad</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>troy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>prosperity, riches</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>troyne</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>rich, prosperous</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Troynye</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a city in Nyandai, locally <i>Tloyne </i>[‘(place) of prosperity’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>trum</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>edge, border</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>tea</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>number, amount</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsalwor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>base (for exponentiation) </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>matter, subject, case</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsar</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>laud, praise; an ancient honor for generals and kings</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsat</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>point to, indicate; refer, mean</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsau</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>turn, rotate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsauħin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>lathe [‘rotate machine’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsaun</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>half</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tsaʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Itseʔ river [Dnetic]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tse</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>this</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsem</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>who, what<br><i>Tsem seʔ </i>Say what? </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsemnwai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pronoun [‘who-word’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsene</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>my (literary) [‘this’ adj.]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tser</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>this one</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tset</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>amphora, jug</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsil</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>money, coin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsim</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>small, little</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsimseʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>mention [‘little say’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tsimtyet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>an island to the southwest; locally <i>Tsemeʔ</i> [‘little island’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>joy, delight</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsir</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>tell a story</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsirram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>storyteller</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsit</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>sister</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsiʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>city, town</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>river</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsom</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>live, reside
<br><i>hyut tsom </i> live all around here</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tson</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>need</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tsopwan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a city [‘river bends’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsor</td>
<td>mod</td>
<td>must (in speaker’s opinion)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsoy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>food</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsoʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>cloud, be cloudy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsu-</td>
<td>cl</td>
<td>diminutive</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tsuam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the nation of Čwam [possibly Dnetic in origin] </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsuamsu</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>trousers [‘Čwamese cloth’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsufrai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>pouch [‘little bag’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsum</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>twelve</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsumweʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>plate, dish [dim. of 'platform']</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>buzz, hum</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsunur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>1/18 of a <i>nurtyun</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsuphau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>small jar, bottle [dim. of ‘bottle’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>shoulder; nape of neck</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsutho</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>underwear [‘near’ + dim.]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsutsyan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>toy; trifle, diversion [‘play’ + dim.]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsustun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>fly [‘little buzz’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsuyt</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>stomach</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsuʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>insect, bug</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsrat</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>evil, wrong</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsratram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>villain, criminal [‘evil person’] </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsraum</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>wide, thick</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsre</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>die</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsrear</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>dead</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>n</td>
<td>corpse, dead body</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsrin</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>(feel) shame (for being exposed or foolish), be embarrassed</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsrinar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>embarrassing, foolish; prurient</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsrinne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>embarrassed; exposed</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsun</td>
<td>v</td>
<td>is it? (question form of <i>he</i>)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswa</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>1889568 = 18<font size=1><sup>5</sup></font></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>hunt</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswar</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>four</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswarħot</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>fourteen</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswaum</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>dense, crowded</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswaut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>lie, mislead, deceive</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswautthet</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>fake, counterfeit</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswautthetar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>fake, false, counterfeit</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswen</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>be loyal (to)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswiʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>scratch</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tswun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>kill</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsya</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>craftsman, artist, expert</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tsyai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the planet Išira</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyan</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>play, amuse oneself; game</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyanlai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mistress [‘play-girl’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyanmwen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>party, dinner party</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>type of flower, much like impatiens</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>dusk, sunset; the dusk hour</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tsyeʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the main river of Phoy Tai</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyir</td>
<td>adv</td>
<td>certainly, for sure</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyo</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>ferment, brew (beer or wine)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyoar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>fermented, alcoholic</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyofruʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>drink (alcoholic drinks)<br><i>hyet tsyofruʔ </i>get drunk</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>early fall</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyun</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>dangerous</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyunproy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>danger, peril, something dangerous</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyur</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>white</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsyurram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>loan shark [‘white man’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tsutsyan</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>joke; trifle [dim. of ‘play’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tueʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a city in Phetai [<i>túeʔ</i>, local form of <i>twot </i>‘river fork’] </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>-tul</td>
<td>cl</td>
<td>plural morpheme</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tulu</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>they (m.)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tur</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>go back, return</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>turnon</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>restore, return to its rightful state or owner; Uytainese Restoration</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>turtsil</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>interest (financial) [calque on Nyanese <i>tordzew</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>vigor, toughness, hardiness</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twer</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>most</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twey</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>doesn’t exist, there are none</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>glory</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twot</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>river fork; the name of a city</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twoʔ</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>how many (interrogative for quantifiers)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twun</td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>out, outside; coming from</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twunne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>outer, exterior</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twuntai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>exile, ban [‘out of the country’]<br><i>tur twuntai </i>deport</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>twur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>rope, cord</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyai</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>strong</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyaun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>split, divide</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyaunar</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>split, divided</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyaur</td>
<td>cj</td>
<td>introduces neither-nor or not-because clauses</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>island</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyim</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>dust</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyol</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>present (a child to its father)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyolar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>child [‘presented’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>part, portion, fraction</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>buy, purchase<br><i>keʔ tyur </i>get (as a gift for someone)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyurram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>customer, client, buyer</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyurtsal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>purchase price (what something is sold for) [‘buy-amount’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>tyut</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>young boy (i.e. before puberty)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>un</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>give (something)<br><i>tur un </i>give back, return<br><i>pe un</i> take back</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>uy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ancestor</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Uykhrai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a city on the Ħomtso [‘ancestor-blessed’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>uyhret</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the magical powers of ancestors [‘ancestor-power’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>uyħwa</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>standard-bearer, herald [‘ancestor-bearer’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Uyram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the ancient Uyseʔic peoples [‘ancestor people’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Uyseʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the Uytainese language [‘ancestor speech’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Uytai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the name of the country [‘ancestors’ land’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>uytaine</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>Uytainese, of Uytai</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Uytairam</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>Uytainese person or people [‘Uytai person’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>uytyun</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>tithe, temple’s share of produce</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>uywar</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>a token representing an ancestor (originally their skeleton) [‘ancestor body’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wa</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>ah, oh </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wal</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>period of time, stage</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wan</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>sure; accurate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>war</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>body; group, corps</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>warfen</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>physicality; matter (as opposed to spirit) [‘body-ness’]<br><i>warfen nye ʔarkhel </i>the physical plane</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>warne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>physical; scientific</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wau</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>other</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>waum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>like, appreciate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>waur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>swell, expand</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>waut</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>(do a) task, job</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wauthur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>differ<br><i>X Y wauthur</i> X and Y are different</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wel</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>red</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>welhyan</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>salmon [‘red flesh’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>weltsai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the highest quality of tea [‘red tea’, after the bags used by Kyowne] </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wen</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>next, later</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wennur</td>
<td>temp</td>
<td>tomorrow [‘next day’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wey</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>arm</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>weyram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>procurer of mercenaries [‘arm man’; cf. <i>thelram</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wim</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>acquire, obtain, get, come to have
<br><i>keʔ wim </i>acquire (for someone else)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wimhar</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>marry (a man)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wimhwai</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>marry (a woman)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wir</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>round, curved</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>won</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>moon </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>lord, baron<br><i>wor thur seʔ </i>speaking freely (like a lord); frankly</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>worso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mansion, lord’s residence; the capital of Čwam [‘lord-house’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wot</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>cross</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>across (from)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wotne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>opposite </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>wow</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>ring</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>woʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mouth</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yai</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>thread, string</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yan</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>whole, entire; (astron.) full</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yau</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>tooth</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yaun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>hear, listen</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yaur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>egg</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>human</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yeʔ</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>her (familiar)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yin</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>add, attach</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yit</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>narrow, thin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yo</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>of him, his </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yol</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>name, call, be called</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yolhoy</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>name [‘naming term’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yon</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>important, notable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yonram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>oligarch, VIP [‘important person’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yor</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>spear</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yoy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>keep</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yoʔ</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>happen; event</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yu</td>
<td>asp</td>
<td>perfective, change of state (external)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yul</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>subtract, remove (a part)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yun</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>grind, pound</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yunħin</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>mill [‘grind machine’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yur</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>rest, stop (somewhere); camp</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yurnur</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>holiday; vacation</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yurso</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>inn [‘rest-house’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yut</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>tree</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yuyuʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>worm</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>yuʔ</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>cunt (obscene term)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔar</td>
<td>#</td>
<td>every, all</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔarfroy</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>understand [‘know all’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔarkhel</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>the world, Almea [‘all corners (of the world)’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔarkhrum</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>government, administration [‘all ministries’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔarpaune</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>imperial [‘all-rule’ + -<i>ne</i>]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔarpauram</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>emperor (later Uytainese term) [‘all-ruler’]</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔaun</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>sacred, holy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔaut</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>season </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔel</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>separate</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>loc</td>
<td>apart from</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔelne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>lonely, alone</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔet</td>
<td>n</td>
<td>disfigurement, abnormality </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔetne</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>disfigured, ugly</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔo</td>
<td>pt</td>
<td>er, um </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔu</td>
<td>pron</td>
<td>he (familiar)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ʔum</td>
<td>nv</td>
<td>bite, chew</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<hr>
<!-- VV nav bar -->
<table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tr bgcolor="#007000"><td colspan=7 height="5">
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><td colspan=7 height="5">
<tr bgcolor="#007000">
<td width="20">
<td width="203" height="50" valign="middle"><a href="virtuver.htm"><img src="illo/vvbase.gif" alt="Virtual Verduria" width="201" height="16"></a>
<td width="77" align="center" valign="middle"><img src="illo/vvcrown.gif" width="36" height="21">
<td valign="middle" align="left">
<img src="illo/vv-logos-other.gif" title="Language pages" width="443" height="36" usemap="#MetaTable">
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFFF"><td colspan=7 height="5">
<tr bgcolor="#007000"><td colspan=7 height="5">
</table>
</BODY></HTML>