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<H1><a name="contents">Šɯk</a> • <span style="font-family:'Verdurian';">Šuk</span></H1>
<p><a href="#Introduction"><b>Introduction</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#people">People</a>
— <a href="#family">Family</a>
— <a href="#terms">Terms</a>
— <a href="#dating">Sources</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Phonology"><b>Phonology</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#Consonants">Consonants</a>
— <a href="#Vowels">Vowels</a>
— <a href="#Phonotactics">Phonotactics</a>
— <a href="#Stress">Stress</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Orthography"><b>Orthography</b></a>
<br/><a href="#Morphology"><b>Morphology</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#Nouns">Nouns</a>
— <a href="#Pronouns">Pronouns</a>
— <a href="#Numbers">Numbers</a>
— <a href="#Verbs">Verbs</a>
— <a href="#Derivational">Derivational </a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Syntax"><b>Syntax</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#Sorder">Sentence order</a>
— <a href="#NPorder">NP order</a>
— <a href="#Negatives">Negatives</a>
— <a href="#Questions">Questions</a>
— <a href="#Copulas">Copulas</a>
— <a href="#Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a>
— <a href="#Possession">Possession</a>
— <a href="#Locatives">Locatives</a>
— <a href="#giving">Giving and speaking</a>
— <a href="#Serial">Serial verbs</a>
— <a href="#Causatives">Causatives</a>
— <a href="#Purpose">Purpose</a>
— <a href="#Relative">Relative clauses</a>
— <a href="#AspectC">Aspect contrasts</a>
— <a href="#Comparatives">Comparatives</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Semantic"><b>Semantic fields</b></a> <i>
— <a href="#Polite">Polite formulas</a>
— <a href="#Kinship">Kinship terms</a>
— <a href="#Names">Names</a> </i>
<br/><a href="#Samples"><b>Samples</b></a> — <i>
<a href="#Gods">Gods and humans</a> –
<a href="#Recording">Recording</a> </i>
<p><a href="#Lexicon"><b>Lexicon</b></a>
<p><i>© 2021 by Mark Rosenfelder</i>
<h2><a name="Introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<h3><a name="people">The people</a></h3>
<b>Šɯk</b> is the language of <b>Šɯʇ</b>— to be precise, the language of the Šɤ river valley in what is today known as Šočya, on the eastern coast of Lebiscuri.
<p>Šɯʇ adopted agriculture from the Bhöɣetans around 1300 Z.E.; we don’t know if the Šɯʇ went to the Bhöɣeta, or if Bhöɣetan settlers arrived. (There is no trace of Bhöɣetan languages in the area.) Chiefdoms appeared in each of the twenty river valleys (<b>ǁɤ</b>) that run through the desert.
<img src="illo/Shwt.png" align="right">
<p><i>Right: Šɯʇ and its major rivers. The orange area is desert; the light green, subtropical. The map is labeled in Šɯk. ǁika is the name of the ocean.</i>
<p>The most populous valley, <b>Šɤ</b>, conquered the remaining valleys by 3400. As it was ruled by a queen, <b>Nyaʇa</b>, and she had only one daugher, <b>ǁika</b>, she proclaimed that only queens could rule Šɯʇ. As a result the queendom was matriarchal, a practice soon adopted by the chiefdoms; families outside the elite remained male-dominated.
<p>In the 3540s the Šɯʇ were decimated by Ereláean diseases; this made it easy for Verdurians to begin settling the river valleys. In 3549 queen <b>ʘisa</b> attempted to repress <b>ʇak</b>, the valley to the south, which had accepted Verdurian sovereignty. The Verdurians took the opportunity to conquer the Šɤ valley, depose ʘisa, and assert their authority over all of Šɯʇ. In 3551 the region was organized as the colony of <b>Šočya</b>.
<p>Some of the more interesting features of Šɯk:
<ul>
<li>It’s a click language, which is as rare on Almea as it is on earth. It has just three clicks, all seen in the section above: labial <b>ʘ</b>, dental <b>ʇ</b>, lateral <b>ǁ</b>.
<li>It has another rare feature: VOS order.
<li>The verb is polypersonal and has no direct marking of tense.
<li>There are case clitics: they are attached to NPs, not nouns.
</ul>
<h3><a name="family">The family</a></h3>
The languages of Šɯʇ form the <b>Šɯʇian</b> family.
<p>The family can be divided into north and south— the languages of Črek and Šɯʇ, separated by an icëlan forest. Črek (<b>ʇlik</b>) is steppeland, and its people were hunter-gatherers and then pastoralists; they rarely interacted with the southern group and were not part of the Šɯʇ queendom.
<p>Within South Šɯʇian, each valley developed its own culture and language— as the Šɯʇ say, <b>ǁɤ nya kah ket</b>: “Every valley its own language.” Almean linguists have taken them at their word, cataloguing twenty different South Šɯʇian languages. This is undoubtedly exaggerated: e.g. it’s clear that the varieties spoken in the adjacent Šɤ and ʇak valleys, though clearly distinguished, are mutually intelligible.
<p>In general people could understand the languages two or three valleys over, but not farther. That is, there is a clear north-south geographical continuum, with no obvious discontinuities, except for the three northernmost languages (<b>ʘɤml, Mahl</b>, and a minor river in between). There is no consensus on how many languages there “really are” nor on where the divisions should be put.
<h3><a name="terms">Terminological note</a></h3>
The Šɯʇ themselves introduced some confusion, applying the word <b>Šɯʇ</b> first to the people of the Šɤ valley, then to the entire Šɯʇian queendom.
<p>I will use Šɯʇ only for the entire region (i.e. Šočya). In Šɯk, if desired, it was possible to distinguish <b>ʇšɤ</b> ‘inhabitant of the Šɤ valley’ from <b>ʇpily</b> ‘inhabitant of Šɯʇ’.
<p>When the Verdurians arrived they made laymen’s approximations to Šɯk words— e.g. <b>Šɯʇ</b> > <i>Šoč > Šočia > Šočya</i>; <b>Šɤ</b> > <i>Šö</i>; <b>ʘisa</b> > <i>Bisa</i>. <b>Šɯk</b> was sometimes <i>Šuc</i> and sometimes <i>Šočë</i>. These became conventional, but I will avoid Verdurianisms here.
<h3><a name="dating">Dating and sources</a></h3>
This document describes “classical Šɯk” (<i>üla Šočë</i>), the language as recorded around 3600. The major sources are the University of Verduria grammar edited by Vrzol Šin in 3613, and the <i>Śycte nizgu</i> by the masterful Kebreni linguist Cadec Angen.
<p>This is post-contact (so there are words for Verdurian things), but does not reflect the thorough Verdurianization already underway at that time, which would make the language almost unrecognizable by the time Angen pubished her grammar in 3646.
<p>The corpus of classical Šɯk is disappointing. Scholars collected songs, folk tales, and myths, but these amount to a few volumes, and no one thought about recording ordinary conversation (though we do have a few phonographic recordings made in the 3590s). By the time scholars paid more attention to everyday language, Šɯk had greatly changed, and no more precolonial speakers existed.
<p>As a result we cannot answer all the questions we might have about Šɯk, and aspects of the grammar are still debated.
<h2><a name="Phonology">Phonology</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Consonants">Consonants</a></h3>
The consonantal array:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> labial</td> <td> dental</td> <td> post-alv</td> <td> velar</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> stops</td> <td> <b> p b</b> </td> <td> <b> t d</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> k g</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> clicks</td> <td> <b> ʘ</b> </td> <td> <b> ǁ </b> </td> <td> <b> ʇ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> fricatives</td> <td> <b> f</b> </td> <td> <b> s </b> </td> <td> <b> š </b> </td> <td> <b> h</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> nasals</td> <td> <b> m</b> </td> <td> <b> n </b> </td> <td> <b> ny</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> liquids</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> l </b> </td> <td> <b> ly</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Šɯk is notable for having three <b>click</b> consonants. These are formed by articulating a stop and creating suction, then releasing it suddenly.
<ul>
<li><b>ʇ</b> – Parallel to /t/; this is the tsk tsk sound of English. The IPA symbol is now <b>ǀ</b>, but as this is easily confused with other letters, I’ve retained the older symbol.
<li><b>ǁ</b> – Similar to [ɬ]; the suction is released on the sides of the tongue. English-speaking horsemen use this sound to urge on the horse.
<li><b>ʘ</b> – Based on /p/—we use it to indicate the sound of a kiss. Among the elite, it’s a softer popping sound (made with far less suction).
</ul>
<b>t d s n</b> all use a purely dental place of articulation. <b>ʇ</b> and <b>š</b> are post-alveolar. <b>ǁ</b> is lateral.
<p><b>h</b> is pronounced /h/ by women and the elite, and as /x/ by everyone else.
<ul>
<li>It is pronounced at the ends of syllables: <b>bah</b> = [bah]
<li>It does not form digraphs: <b>shɤl</b> is [s hɤl] not [ʃɤl]
</ul>
<b>ny</b> and <b>ly</b> are palatalized. It was widely observed that <b>ny</b> was identical to Bhöɣetan <b>ñ</b>; the romanization here reflects the orthography. The lower classes pronounced <b>ly</b> as [ɬ].
<p>Some of the other Šɯtian languages, especially in the north, have a wider range of clicks.
<h3><a name="Vowels">Vowels</a></h3>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> front</td> <td> back</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> high</td> <td> <b> i</b> </td> <td> <b> ɯ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> mid</td> <td> <b> e</b> </td> <td> <b> ɤ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> low</td> <td> <b> æ</b> </td> <td> <b> a</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
There are six vowels; note that the back vowels are unrounded— there are no phonemes /u o/. The Verdurians often hear <b>ɯ ɤ</b> as ü ö; this will seem strange if you’re thinking of the rounding, but makes more sense if you think of them as “not /u o/ for some reason”. The Kebreni represent <b>ɯ</b> as their y <tt>y</tt>.
<p>On the allophonic level, after a labial consonant (including ʘ), the back vowels are somewhat rounded. Thus <b>pɯt mɤ</b> are pronouced [put mo]. Similarly, front vowels are rounded after <b>ny ly</b>, so <b>nyik lyeh</b> are pronounced [ɲük λöh].
<h3><a name="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</a></h3>
Syllables are limited to two patterns:
<ul><li>(C)V(C)
<li>C alone, limited to the clicks, <b>s</b>, and <b>l</b>
</ul>
Medial clusters are not well tolerated. Note that <b>ly</b> and <b>ny</b> are not clusters, and a word like <b>bassak</b> is three syllables /ba-s-sak/.
<p>For the syllabic consonants, cf. <b>ʇ-pily, ʇ-šɤ, kɯs-ǁ, l-hɤn, ǁit-l, kak-s</b>. This can happen only if the consonant is followed or preceded by another consonant: <b>ǁika</b> is <b>ǁi-ka</b>, not ǁ-i-ka. Note that <b>nɯš-s</b> is pronounced [nɯʃ:]. A very few words have no vowels, e.g. <b>ʘǁ, sʘ</b>.
<p>Earthly click languages normally restrict the clicks to the syllable onset, but Šɯk does not.
<p>Voicing is lost word-finally. Fricatives are voiced in medial position— e.g. <b>ifa</b> is pronounced [iva].
<p>Multiple vowels should each get their own syllable— e.g. <b>hɤi</b> is [hɤ i] or even [hɤ ʔi], not [hɤj].
<h3><a name="Stress">Stress</a></h3>
Stress should be placed on the first syllable (which may, as noted above, be a click or syllabic <b>s</b> or <b>l</b>).
<h2><a name="Orthography">Orthography </a></h2>
Šɯk is written with the Verdurian alphabet, thus:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> labial</td> <td> dental</td> <td> post-alv</td> <td> velar</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> stops</td> <td> <b> <tt>p</tt> p</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>t</tt> t</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>c</tt> k</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> </td> <td> <b> <tt>b</tt> b</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>d</tt> d</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>g</tt> g</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> clicks</td> <td> <b> <tt>w</tt> ʘ</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>®</tt> ǁ </b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>ç</tt> ʇ</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> fricatives</td> <td> <b> <tt>f</tt> f</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>s</tt> s</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>ß</tt> š</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>h</tt> h</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> nasals</td> <td> <b> <tt>m</tt> m</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>n</tt> n</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>ny</tt> ny</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> liquids</td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>l</tt> l</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> </td> <td> <b> <tt>ly</tt> ly</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The motivating principle for the orthography— not unknown in terrestrial linguistics— is “make use of what’s already on the typewriter.”
<ul>
<li>The Verdurian <tt>h</tt> is reused for <b>h</b>, though the Verdurian letter is silent.
<li>There is no surprise that /k/ is represented with <tt>c</tt> which has the same value in Verdurian; but of course <tt>c</tt> is transliterated <b>c</b> in Verdurian.
<li>The clicks are not represented with phonetic symbols, but with <b>w č ř</b>. The first two at least get the place of articulation right; <b>ř</b> was what the Verdurians heard for ǁ.
<li>No symbols were invented for <b>ly ny</b>; but as there is no use of <tt>y</tt>, there is no confusion. However, as in Verdurian, <b>lye nye</b> are written <tt>lë në</tt>.
</ul>
The vowels:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> front</td> <td> back</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> high</td> <td> <b> <tt>i</tt> i</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>u</tt> ɯ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> mid</td> <td> <b> <tt>e</tt> e</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>o</tt> ɤ</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> low</td> <td> <b> <tt>ä</tt> æ</b> </td> <td> <b> <tt>a</tt> a</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
That is, the Verdurians write <b>ɯ ɤ</b> as <b>u o</b>— though they usually borrow them as <b>ü ö</b>. <tt>ä</tt> for <b>æ</b> (Verdurian <b>ä</b>) is another case of using a convenient, vaguely related letter.
<p>Scholars sometimes use the Almean phonetic alphabet, but Šɯk speakers have stuck with the system above.
If you use the Verdurian font, <blu>make the following substitutions</blu> before switching fonts.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> š </b> </td> <td> <b> k </b> </td> <td> <b> u </b> </td> <td> <b> o </b> </td> <td> <b> æ </b> </td> <td> <b> ʘ </b> </td> <td> <b> ǁ </b> </td> <td> <b> ʇ </b> </td> <td> <b> lye </b> </td> <td> <b> nye </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <blu> ß</blu> </td> <td> <blu> c</blu> </td> <td> <blu> u</blu> </td> <td> <blu> o</blu> </td> <td> <blu> ä</blu> </td> <td> <blu> w</blu> </td> <td> <blu> ç</blu> </td> <td> <blu> ®</blu> </td> <td> <blu> lë</blu> </td> <td> <blu> në</blu> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
On the Mac, <blu>ß ç ®</blu> are alt-s alt-c alt-r. On Windows, well, cut and paste is your friend.
<h2><a name="Morphology">Morphology</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Nouns">Nouns</a></h3>
Nouns do not inflect, but NPs do. There are several clitics used:
<ul>
<li>plural
<ul>
o <b>ny</b> after a vowel
o <b>nye</b> after a consonant
</ul>
<li>genitive (‘of X’)
<ul>
o <b>t</b> after a vowel, which is raised
o <b>at</b> after a consonant
</ul>
<li>ablative <b>še</b> (‘from X’)
<li>adessive or locative (‘at X’)
<ul>
o <b>i</b> after a vowel
o <b>il</b> after a consonant
</ul>
<li>allative <b>nyæt</b> (‘to X’)
<li>comitative <b>bæ</b> (‘with X’)
</ul>
Applied to a noun, these look like inflections: <b>pa > pany</b> ‘mothers’, <b>ɯsak > ɯsaknye</b> ‘healers’; <b>pɤt</b> ‘of mother’, <b>ɯsakat</b> ‘of the healer’; <b>ɯsaknyit</b> ‘of the healers’; <b>Šɤ > Šɯʇ</b> ‘of the Šɤ’; <b>Šɯʇnyæt</b> ‘to Šɯʇ’.
<p>But add some modifiers, and you’ll see that the clitic applies to the end of the NP:
<blockquote> <b>pa sɤl > pa sɤlnye</b> ‘the good mothers’
<br/><b>pa sɤl > pa sɤlat</b> ‘of the good mother’
<br/><b>pa sɤl ʘe > pa sɤl ʘeny</b> ‘those good mothers’
</blockquote>
As the clitics end an NP, they can stack. <b>ɯsak ʘilyat</b> ‘the queen’s healer’ is straightforward, but note
<blockquote> <tt> meç usac wily-at-at-në</tt> <br/>
<b> meʇ ɯsak ʘily-at-at-nye</b> <br/>
son healer queen-gen-gen-pl<br/>
<i> the sons of the queen’s healer</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
It may be hard to wrap your head around this, but it’s a simple application of the NP rule. It may be easier to understand if we add brackets and colors:
<blockquote>
<b> <red>[meʇ</red> <blu>ɯsak</blu> <grn>[ʘily-at</grn><blu>]-at</blu><red>]</red>-nye</b> <br/>
<red>son</red> <blu>healer</blu> <grn>queen-gen</grn>-<blu>gen</blu>-pl<br/>
<i> <red>the sons</red> <blu>of</blu> <grn>the queen’s</grn> <blu>healer</blu></i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<ul>
<li>The easy bit is <grn>ʘily-at</grn> ‘queen’s’, as the NP <b>ʘily</b> is one word.
<li>We then take the entire NP <blu>ɯsak ʘilyat</blu> ‘the queens healer’ and add the clitic -<b>at</b>, forming <blu>ɯsak ʘilyatat</blu> ‘of the queen’s healer’.
<li><red>meʇ ɯsak ʘilyatat</red> is another NP: ‘the son of the queen’s healer’.
<li>Add the plural clitic -<b>nye</b> to this to get the full sentence ‘the sons of the queen’s healer’.
</ul>
The genitive clitic can’t occur more than two times in a row, unless another clitic intervenes. Thus the above phrase could be extended to <b>nap meʇ ɯsak ʘily-at-at-nye-at</b> ‘the house of the sons of the queen’s healer’, but 'the house of the <i>son</i> of the queen’s healer’ is <b>nap meʇ ɯsak ʘily-at-at</b> with a ‘missing’ <b>-at</b>.
<h3><a name="Pronouns">Pronouns</a></h3>
<h4>Personal</h4>
Personal pronouns are rarely used, as person is marked on the verb. But independent forms do exist, used for emphasis or precision, or with conjunctions.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> s</td> <td> pl</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 1</td> <td> <b> nim</b> </td> <td> <b> nimnye</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 2</td> <td> <b> gɤm</b> </td> <td> <b> gɤmnye</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<h4>Personal genitives</h4>
Though the genitive clinic can be added to the above forms (<b>nimat</b> ‘my’; <b>nap nimat</b> ‘my house’), it’s more common to add affixes: 1 -<b>s</b>, 2 -<b>l</b>, 3 -<b>n(ɤ)</b>. Thus:
<blockquote>
<b>naps</b> my or our house <br/>
<b>napl</b> your house<br/>
<b>napnɤ</b> his/her house
</blockquote>
These are not clitics, but inflections, so you say e.g. napsnye ‘my houses’, naps siny ‘my beautiful house’.
<p>(We’ll meet these same affixes in the verbal morphology, but note that the ‘you’ marker works differently for verbs.)
<h4>Demonstratives</h4>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> adj</td> <td> NP anim</td> <td> NP inan</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> this</td> <td> <b> baly</b> </td> <td> <b> ɯbaly</b> </td> <td> <b> bah</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> that</td> <td> <b> ʘe</b> </td> <td> <b> ɯpe</b> </td> <td> <b> ʘeh</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The first column is used with a noun: <b>nily baly</b> ‘this girl’, <b>nily ʘe</b> ‘that girl’.
<p>The other forms take the place of an entire NP. The <b>ɯ</b>- form is used for animates, the -<b>h</b> form for inanimates. These can also be used as 3rd person pronouns.
<h4>Quantifiers</h4>
<blockquote>
none <b>si</b> <br/>
some <b>hiʘɤ</b> <br/>
other <b>aly</b> <br/>
many <b>lyɤ</b> <br/>
all <b>nya</b>
</blockquote>
The quantifiers are adjectives, following the noun: <b>nyeš si</b> ‘no person’, <b>he nya</b> ‘all temples’.
<p>To form NPs, these are combined with an appropriate generic noun— <b>nyeš</b> ‘person’, <b>tat</b> ‘thing’, <b>mat</b> ‘day’, <b>mɯs</b> ‘place’ are the most common, but something more specific can be used.
<h4>Interrogatives</h4>
The basic interrogative is <b>ɤʘ</b> ‘who, what’. It combines with various nouns to form other questions, e.g. <b>mat ɤʘ</b> ‘what day’ = ‘when’.
<p>There is also <b>nyɤʘ</b> for ‘why’.
<h3><a name="Numbers">Numbers</a></h3>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> n</td> <td> n+10</td> <td> 1/n</td> <td> Verd</td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 1</td> <td> <b> pæ</b> </td> <td> <b> lyeh se</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 2</td> <td> <b> hi</b> </td> <td> <b> lɯka</b> </td> <td> <b> mai</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 3</td> <td> <b> ʘɤ</b> </td> <td> <b> lɯka se</b> </td> <td> <b> eke</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 4</td> <td> <b> ely</b> </td> <td> <b> lyeh elybæ</b> </td> <td> <b> ʘelyat</b> </td> <td> <b> pal</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 5</td> <td> <b> nyar</b> </td> <td> <b> lyeh nyarbæ</b> </td> <td> <b> ʘnyarat</b> </td> <td> <b> pan</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 6</td> <td> <b> nyaši</b> </td> <td> <b> lyeh nyašibæ</b> </td> <td> <b> ʘnyašit</b> </td> <td> <b> ses</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 7</td> <td> <b> nyalɯ</b> </td> <td> <b> taha kai </b> </td> <td> <b> ʘnyalɯt</b> </td> <td> <b> ep</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 8</td> <td> <b> nyaʇap</b> </td> <td> <b> teha</b> </td> <td> <b> ʘnyaʇapat</b> </td> <td> <b> šɤk</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 9</td> <td> <b> mida</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> ʘmidet</b> </td> <td> <b> nef</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> 10</td> <td> <b> lyeh</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> ʘlyihat</b> </td> <td> <b> dek</b> </td> </tr>
</table></blockquote>
The numbers 5 and up are largely borrowed from Bhöɣetan. <b>Lyeh</b>, now ‘10’, is related to <b>lyɤ</b> ‘many’ and probably once meant only ‘more than four’.
<p>100 is <b>dašaʇ</b>, 324 is <b>tenaʇ</b>.
<p>Multiplication is implied by concatenation. This allows multiples of 10 or 18 to be used:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b>lyeh hi</b></td> <td> 20</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>lyeh nyaši</b></td> <td> 60</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>teha hi</b></td> <td> 36</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>teha nyar</b></td> <td> 90</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>dašaʇ hi</b></td> <td> 200</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>tenaʇ ʘɤ</b></td> <td> 972</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Addition is indicated with the clitic -<b>bæ</b>:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b>lyeh elybæ</b></td> <td> 10 4-and</td> <td> 14</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>lyeh nyaši ʘɤbæ</b></td> <td> 10 6 3-and</td> <td> 63</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>dašaʇ hi lyeh nyašibæ</b></td> <td> 100 2 10 6-and</td> <td> 260</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>teha hi nyalɯbæ</b></td> <td> 18 2 7-and</td> <td> 43</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Merchants in Šɯʇ often simply used a Bhöɣetan language for counting and arithmetic (indeed, they were often Bhöɣetans themselves). Unsurprisingly, Verdurian numeration was adopted quickly; the last column of the table shows the borrowed numbers. (Native 1 2 3 were kept.)
<p>Numbers follow the noun, usually with no plural: <b>nily ʘɤ</b> ‘three girls’.
<h3><a name="Verbs">Verbs</a></h3>
<h4><a name="Subject">Subject affixes</h4>
Verbs are marked by affixes which give the subject:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b>-s</b></td> <td> I/we</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>e</b>- </td> <td> you</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> -<b>n</b> </td> <td> he/she/it/they</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Thus:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b>kɯs</b></td> <td> I go, we go</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> ekɯ</b> </td> <td> you go </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> kɯn</b> </td> <td> he/she goes, they go </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> mes</b> </td> <td> I am, we are </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> eme</b> </td> <td> you are </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> men</b> </td> <td> he/she is, they are </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> kaks</b> </td> <td> I speak </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> ekak</b> </td> <td> you speak</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> <td> <b> kan</b> </td> <td> he speaks</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
When there’s a final consonant, as with <b>kak</b>, -<b>s</b> becomes syllabic.
<p>The 3rd person -<b>n</b> usually eats the final consonant. But there are exceptions, marked in the lexicon: e.g. <b>kap</b> ‘hide’ > <b>kam</b> ‘he/she hides’.
<h4>Object affixes</h4>
Verbs are also marked with object prefixes.
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b>s</b>-</td> <td> me/us</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>l</b>- </td> <td> you</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b>ʘ</b>- </td> <td> him/her/it/them </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Here are all the combinations for <b>hɤl</b> ‘see:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="3"> Subject</td> </tr>
<tr bgcolor="#A090D0"> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> 1 </td> <td> 2 </td> <td> 3 </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> Object</td> <td> <b> (none)</b> </td> <td> <b> hɤls</b> </td> <td> <b> ehɤl</b> </td> <td> <b> hɤn</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> </td> <td> <b> 1</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> sehɤl</b> </td> <td> <b> shɤn</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> </td> <td> <b> 2</b> </td> <td> <b> lhɤls</b> </td> <td> <b> </b> </td> <td> <b> lhɤn</b> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td bgcolor="#A090D0"> </td> <td> <b> 3</b> </td> <td> <b> ʘhɤls</b> </td> <td> <b> ʘehɤl</b> </td> <td> <b> ʘhɤn</b> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Object marking is not used in the following cases:
<ul>
<li>Reflexives, which is why the 1>1 and 2>2 cells are blank. <b>ʘhɤn</b> must mean that one third person saw another. For reflexives, you use the middle voice instead.
<li>Inanimate objects.
<li>Explicit objects— that is, where the 3rd person is expressed by an NP in the sentence.
</ul>
<h4>Plurality</h4>
Some speakers optionally indicated the plurality of either subject or object by suffixing -<b>nye</b> to the verb. Thus <b>ʘkaksnye</b> could mean any of ‘I spoke to them’, ‘We spoke to him’, or ‘We spoke to them.’
<h4>Aspect/Modality</h4>
The verb alone can be said to be perfective or completive: it sees the action as a single event which proceeeds to completion. It does not necessarily imply past, though it’s normal for describing past events.
<p>As perception and belief are immediate, verbs expressing these can be used in the present: <b>hɤls</b> = ‘I see’ or ‘I saw’.
<p>There are three clitics which express various aspects and modalities. Only one can be used at a time.
<ul>
<li><b>me</b>- (which as a verb means ‘be’) is imperfective. So <b>kaks</b> = ‘I spoke’, <b>me-kaks</b> = ‘I am/was speaking.’ Like our progressive, it emphasizes that the action is an ongoing process. Before the prefix <b>e</b>- it becomes <b>mi</b>-.
<li><b>ha</b>- is irrealis. It expresses a wish or obligation: <b>ha-ehɤl</b> ‘if you could see’, ‘you should see’.
<li><b>ge</b>- is intentive, and expresses a promise or intention in the 1st person only. The subject -<b>s</b> is omitted. So <b>ge-kak</b> = ‘I will speak, I promise to speak.’
</ul>
The meanings change in conditional expressions; see the syntax section.
<h4>Habitual</h4>
The habitual or iterative is formed by reduplicating the verb, omitting the final consonant. Thus:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> kɯkɯs</b> </td> <td> I went often, I go on and on</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɤhɤs</b> </td> <td> I watched often, I watched and watched</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kakas</b> </td> <td> I spoke often, I spoke a lot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇɤʇɤs</b> </td> <td> I coughed often, I had coughing fits</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
The idea is that the action starts and stops, as opposed to the imperfective which describes a prolonged or uncompleted action.
<p>It can be combined with the irrealis (<b>ha-ekakas</b> ‘you should speak often’) or intentive (<b>ge-kakas</b> ‘I will speak a lot’).
<h4>Ventive</h4>
The prefix <b>mɯ</b>- forms the ventive, which indicates that the action moves toward the speaker, or takes place near them, or was done for their benefit.
<p>Thus <b>kɯn</b> ‘he went’, but <b>mɯkɯn</b> ‘he came’, i.e. ‘he went towards me’.
<p>The combination <b>mɯ + e- > mɤ</b>; thus <b>ekɯ</b> ‘you went’ > <b>mɤkɯ</b> ‘you came’.
<p>The ventive often becomes a simple benefactive: e.g. a queen may boast <b>mɯlin he</b> ‘they built the temple for me’. You can also use the ventive with reference to your household or institution, so long as you are closely associated with it. E.g. a member of the queen’s court could also say <b>mɯlin he</b>, though the benefit is understood to be for the queen.
<h4>Negative</h4>
The negative is formed by suffixing -<b>ǁ</b>:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> kɯsǁ</b> </td> <td> I didn’t go</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ekɯǁ</b> </td> <td> you didn’t go</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɯnǁ</b> </td> <td> he didn’t go</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> me-kɯsǁ</b> </td> <td> I wasn’t going, I’m not going</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ha-kɯsǁ </b> </td> <td> I shouldn’t go</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɯkɯsǁ</b> </td> <td> I wasn’t going a lot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯkɯnǁ</b> </td> <td> he didn’t come</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> </td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
If <b>ǁ</b> is applied after the subject affix -<b>s</b>, the final consonant of the root disappears: thus <b>kasǁ</b> ‘I didn’t speak’.
<h4>Middle</h4>
The prefix <b>ba</b>- expresses the middle, which we can define simply as “not active.” It may be more useful to enumerate its three major uses.
<p>If <b>ba</b>- is used, omit the 3rd person -<b>n</b> if any. <b>Ba + e- > bæ-</b>.
<p>First, it’s a reflexive: <b>hešs</b> ‘I washed it’ > <b>bahešs</b> ‘I washed myself’.
<p>Second, it expresses an agentless action. This is similar to a passive, but it’s generally used when there is no apparent agent at all. Compare <b>ssan</b> ‘he healed me’ with <b>bassak</b> ‘I got better’. <b>Baniǁ fɤt</b> ‘the door opened’ is appropriate when the door opens by itself, but not when an indefinite subject is meant.
<p>This meaning is often lexicalized as a change in valence, but note that the person experiencing the action continues to be expressed as an object, not a subject. Thus <b>lǁan</b> ‘he killed you’ > <b>balǁat</b> ‘you were killed’.
<p>Finally, with verbs of perception or belief, the middle expresses a change of state. Thus <b>hɤls</b> ‘I saw it’ > <b>bahɤls</b> ‘I came to see it, I (just then) noticed it.’
<h4>Imperative</h4>
The simplest imperative is the verb root: <b>kɯ</b>! ‘go!’
<p>
It’s negated in two ways. The normal negative <b>ǁ</b> is used to prohibit an action: <b>kɯǁ!</b> ‘don’t go!’ By extension, <b>ǁ</b> alone has the meaning ‘Don’t!’
<p>The verb <b>ɤʇ</b> means ‘stop’, but can be prefixed to an imperative with the meaning ‘stop that’. Thus <b>ɤʇ-kɯ!</b> ‘stop going!’ This can be abbreviated <b>ɤʇ!</b> ‘stop!’
<p>The other verb prefixes can be used, sometimes with slightly changed meanings:
<ul>
<li>You can use object prefixes: <b>shɤl!</b> ‘look at me!’
<li>The Imperfective implies ‘keep doing that’: <b>me-kɯ!</b> ‘keep going!’
<li>The irrealis expresses obligation: <b>ha-kɯ!</b> ‘you should go!’
<li>The ventive operates normally:<b> mɯkɯ!</b> ‘come!’
<li>Reflexive <b>ba</b>- operates as you’d expect: <b>baheš!</b> ‘wash yourself!’ The other uses of the middle cannot be used as imperatives.
</ul>
<h3><a name="Derivational">Derivational morphology</a></h3>
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯ-</b> </td> <td> doer </td> <td> <b>ɯsak</b> healer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -(i)h</b> </td> <td> nominalizer (fronts vowel)</td> <td> <b>kak</b> speak > <b>kah</b> language</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘ-</b> </td> <td> concrete object (plus genitive)</td> <td> <b>nye</b> evil > <b>ʘnyit</b> monster</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -k</b> </td> <td> language</td> <td> <b>Bedur</b> Verduria > <b>beduk</b> Verdurian</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇ-</b> </td> <td> member </td> <td> <b>nam</b> palace > <b>ʇnam</b> courtier</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -m</b> </td> <td> augmentative</td> <td> <b>nap</b> house > <b>nam</b> palace</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -l</b> </td> <td> adjectivizer (syllabic after a consonant)</td> <td> <b>ǁit</b> heart > <b>ǁitl</b> vigorous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -ly</b> </td> <td> feminine</td> <td> <b>hik</b> husband > <b>hily</b> wife</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -a</b> </td> <td> verbalizer</td> <td> <b>fih</b> work > <b>fiha</b> work</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
<h2><a name="Syntax">Syntax </a></h2>
Šɯk is largely head-first. This means verbs normally come first in the sentences, and nouns head their NPs.
<h3><a name="Sorder">Sentence order</a></h3>
The normal sentence order is V<blu>O</blu><red>S</red>:
<blockquote> <tt> ‰an wnyit utul.</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁan <blu>ʘnyit</blu> <red>ɯtɯl</red>.</b> <br/>
kill.3 monster warrior<br/>
<i> The warrior killed the monster.</i> <br/>
<p><tt> Mecan wily çe.</tt> <br/>
<b> Mekan <blu>ʘily</blu> <red>ʇe</red>.</b> <br/>
irr-see.3 queen priest<br/>
<i> The priest should speak to the queen.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The fact that verb affixes are in the order O-V-S (mostly; subject <b>e</b>- is an exception) makes linguists wonder if the syntactic order was once OVS. But there is no direct evidence of this.
<p>If the object is not stated, and it’s animate, it’s marked on the verb with <b>ʘ</b>-:
<blockquote> <tt> W®an utul.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>ʘ</blu>ǁan ɯtɯl.</b> <br/>
3-kill.3 warrior<br/>
<i> The warrior killed it.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
We do see VSO sentences, which show object agreement. They are thus a form of topicalization.
<blockquote> <tt> W®an utul wnyit.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>ʘ</blu>ǁan <red>ɯtɯl</red> <blu>ʘnyit</blu>.</b> <br/>
3-kill.3 warrior monster<br/>
<i> The monster, the warrior killed it.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
1st and 2nd person arguments are expressed using verb affixes. Personal pronouns are rare.
<blockquote> <tt> Mecacs wily.</tt> <br/>
<b> Me-kak<red>s</red> ʘily.</b> <br/>
irr-see-1 queen <br/>
<i> I should speak to the queen.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Mewcacs.</tt> <br/>
<b> Me-<blu>ʘ</blu>kak<red>s</red>.</b> <br/>
irr-3-see-1 <br/>
<i> I should speak to her.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Another form of <b>topicalization</b> is to front an argument, replacing it with <b>ɯpe/ʘeh</b> ‘that one (animate/inanimate)’.
<blockquote> <tt> Utul, çan wnyit upe.</tt> <br/>
<b> <red>Ɯtɯl</red>, ǁan ʘnyit <red>ɯpe</red>.</b> <br/>
warrior / kill.3 monster that.one<br/>
<i> The warrior, he killed the monster.</i> <br/>
<p>
<tt>Wnyit, çan upe utul.</tt><br/>
<b> <blu>ʘnyit</blu>, ǁan <blu>ɯpe</blu> ɯtɯl.</b> <br/>
monster / kill.3 that.one warrior <br/>
<i>The monster, the warrior killed it.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="NPorder">NP order</a></h3>
The noun always heads the NP. Some examples:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> nily</b> </td> <td> a girl</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily siny</b> </td> <td> a beautiful girl</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily baly</b> </td> <td> this girl</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily siny baly</b> </td> <td> this beautiful girl</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nilynye</b> </td> <td> girls</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily balynye</b> </td> <td> these girls</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily nyar</b> </td> <td> five girls</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily siny nyar balynye</b> </td> <td> these five beautiful girls</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily naǁatnye</b> </td> <td> the girls of the city</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily naǁše</b> </td> <td> a girl from the city</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily naǁšenye</b> </td> <td> girls from the city</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily naǁnyeše</b> </td> <td> a girl from the cities</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily ǁanl ɯtɯl</b> </td> <td> the girl who killed the monster</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
Modifiers relate to the preceding noun. Compare:
<blockquote> <tt>nily siny nyar na®at</tt><br/>
<b><blu>nily</blu> siny <blu>nyar</blu> naǁat</b> <br/>
girl beautiful five city-gen <br/>
<i>the five beautiful girls from the city</i>
<p><tt>nily sinynë na® nyarat</tt><br/>
<b>nily sinynye <blu>naǁ nyarat</blu></b> <br/>
girl beautiful city five-gen<br/>
<i>the beautiful girls from the five cities</i>
</blockquote>
There are no articles.
<h3><a name="Negatives">Negatives</a></h3>
A sentence is negated using the verbal suffix <b>ǁ</b>:
<blockquote> <tt> ‰an® wnyit utul.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>ǁanǁ</blu> ʘnyit ɯtɯl.</b> <br/>
kill.3-not monster warrior<br/>
<i> The warrior didn’t kill the monster.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If you want to negate a particular element, use the quantifier <b>si</b> ‘none’. The <b>ǁ</b> suffix is optional in this construction.
<blockquote> <tt> ‰an(®) wnyit si utul.</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁan(ǁ) ʘnyit <blu>si</blu> ɯtɯl.</b> <br/>
kill.3-(not) monster none warrior<br/>
<i> The warrior didn’t kill any monster.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Questions">Questions</a></h3>
<h4>Yes-no</h4>
To question a statement, use the particle <b>meʘ</b> at the end of the sentence:
<blockquote> <tt> ‰an wnyit utul mew?</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁan ʘnyit ɯtɯl <blu>meʘ</blu>?</b> <br/>
kill.3 monster warrior Q<br/>
<i> Did the warrior kill the monster?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The simplest answer is <b>ʘeh</b>, literally ‘That.’ Colloquially, just <b>ʘ</b> will do. You can also repeat the verb, though be careful when pronominal affixes appear as they must be corrected:
<blockquote> <tt> —Me-wecacs mew?</tt> <br/>
<b> —Me-ʘekaks meʘ?</b> <br/>
irr-3-see-1 Q<br/>
<i> Should I speak to her?</i>
<p> <tt> —Mi-wecac.</tt> <br/>
<b> —<blu>Mi-ʘekak</blu>.</b> <br/>
irr-3-2-see<br/>
<i> Yes, you should speak to her.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The negative response is <b>meǁ</b> ‘no’ (literally ‘it is not’). Colloquially you can just utter <b>ǁ</b>.
<p>
You can question a negative statement the same way:
<blockquote> <tt> ‰an® wnyit utul mew?</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁanǁ ʘnyit ɯtɯl <blu>meʘ</blu>?</b> <br/>
kill.3-not monster warrior Q<br/>
<i> Didn’t the warrior kill the monster?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Here <b>ʘeh</b> affirms the negative: “Right, he didn’t kill it.” To affirm the positive— “he did kill it”— you say <b>aly</b>, literally ‘the other’. If that is confusing, just use the verb (<b>ʘǁan</b> ‘he killed it’, <b>ʘǁanǁ</b> ‘he didn’t kill it’).
<p>You can also answer questions with <b>edaš</b> ‘you know’. This is the response when the answer is obvious, or you suspect the speaker is playing games (they’re speaking rhetorically or evasively).
<h4>The interrogative</h4>
The interrogative pronoun ɤʘ replaces any argument, and is not moved out of its position. ɤʘ does not trigger any verbal agreement.
<blockquote> <tt> ‰at wnyit ow?</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁat ʘnyit <blu>ɤʘ</blu>?</b> <br/>
kill monster who<br/>
<i> Who killed the monster?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> ‰an ow utul.</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁan <blu>ɤʘ</blu> ɯtɯl.</b> <br/>
kill.3 who warrior<br/>
<i> What did the warrior kill?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
When pronominal affixes are involved, there will be only one argument, but the affixes will make the meaning clear.
<blockquote> <tt> ‰ats ow?</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁats <blu>ɤʘ</blu>?</b> <br/>
kill-1 who<br/>
<i> What did I kill?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> S®at ow?</tt> <br/>
<b> Sǁat <blu>ɤʘ</blu>?</b> <br/>
1-kill who <br/>
<i> What killed me?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The interrogative can take the locative and genitive clitics:
<blockquote> <tt> Mi-ekɯ ownyät?</tt> <br/>
<b> Mi-ekɯ <blu>ɤʘnyæt</blu>?</b> <br/>
imperf-2-go who-allat<br/>
<i> Where are you going?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Men nap owat bah?</tt> <br/>
<b> Men nap <blu>ɤʘat</blu> bah?</b> <br/>
be-3s house who-gen this-inan<br/>
<i> Whose house is this?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
To query a time, use an expression like <b>mat ɤʘ</b> ‘what day’:
<blockquote> <tt> Moku mat ow?</tt> <br/>
<b> Mɤkɯ <blu>mat ɤʘ</blu>?</b> <br/>
vent-2-go day who<br/>
<i> When did you arrive?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
There is a separate interrogative <b>nyɤʘ</b> for ‘why’:
<blockquote> <tt> Nyow men ßel ßom?</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Nyɤʘ</blu> men šel šɤm?</b> <br/>
why be-3 sky blue<br/>
<i> Why is the sky blue?</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Copulas">Copulas</a></h3>
<b>Me</b> ‘be’ can be used as an ordinary verb:
<blockquote> <tt> Men unyeh çbedurnë.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Men</blu> ɯnyeh ʇbedɯrnye.</b> <br/>
be-3 villain Verdurian-pl<br/>
<i> Verdurians are villains.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
This statement can be used of a present or past state. The imperfective (<b>me-me</b>) is used for a temporary state. Compare:
<blockquote> <tt> Me-men Usiny ßap.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Me-men</blu> Ɯsiny šap.</b> <br/>
be-be-3 Ɯsiny drunk<br/>
<i> Ɯsiny is currently drunk.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Men Usiny ßap.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Men</blu> Ɯsiny šap.</b> <br/>
be-3 Ɯsiny drunk<br/>
<i> Ɯsiny is a drunkard.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
However, it’s more common to simply treat a one-word predicate as a verb. This construction always expresses the current condition without asserting that it is permanent.
<blockquote> <tt> Nyen çbedurnë.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Nyen</blu> ʇbedɯrnye.</b> <br/>
evil-3 Verdurian-pl<br/>
<i> Verdurians are evil.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ían Usiny.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Šam</blu> Ɯsiny.</b> <br/>
drunk.3 Ɯsiny <br/>
<i> Ɯsiny is drunk.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Note that denominals like <b>ɯnyeh</b> (‘villain’, literally ‘evil one’) are replaced by their roots in this construction.
<h3><a name="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a></h3>
Nouns are normally conjoined using the comitative clitic -<b>bæ</b>. Thus <b>matšemat matɤlatbæ</b> ‘summer and winter’, <b>nily šimbæ</b> ‘a girl and a boy’.
<p>Again, the clitic attaches to an entire NP.
<blockquote> <tt> nily nyaßl ßim sinybä</tt> <br/>
<b> nily nyašl šim siny<blu>bæ</blu></b> <br/>
girl brave boy beautiful-com<br/>
<i> the brave girl and the beautiful boy</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Grammatically, the NP+clitic modifies the first name, and thus is not reflected on the verb. That is, only the first conjoint triggers verbal agreement:
<blockquote> <tt> Me-gewen nas nimbä. </tt> <br/>
<b> Me-geʘe<blu>n</blu> nas nimbæ. </b> <br/>
impf-argue.3 father-1 I-com<br/>
<i> My father and I were arguing.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Me-gewems nim nasbä. </tt> <br/>
<b> Me-geʘem<blu>s</blu> nim nasbæ. </b> <br/>
impf-argue-1 I father-1-com<br/>
<i> I and my father were arguing.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If you have more than two conjoints, add <b>-bæ</b> only to the last: <B>ʘily nam nyešbæ</b> ‘the queen and the court and the people’.
<p>The clitic can’t be used with adjectives or verbs. But in these cases concatenation can be used:
<blockquote> <tt> nily nyaßl siny</tt> <br/>
<b> nily nyašl siny</b> <br/>
girl brave beautiful<br/>
<i> the brave beautiful girl</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Íin nen wily.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Šin nen</blu> ʘily.</b> <br/>
eat.3 sleep-3 queen<br/>
<i> The queen ate and slept.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Sentences are conjoined with <b>ifa</b>:
<blockquote> <tt> Nen wily, ifa mucun wnyitnë.</tt> <br/>
<b> Nen ʘily, <blu>ifa</blu> mɯkɯn ʘnyitnye.</b> <br/>
sleep-3 queen / and vent-go monster-pl<br/>
<i> The queen slept, and the monsters came.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
which is also used (more rarely) with other constitutents
<blockquote> <tt> nily nyaßl ifa ßim siny</tt> <br/>
<b> nily nyašl <blu>ifa</blu> šim siny</b> <br/>
girl brave and boy beautiful<br/>
<i> the brave girl and the beautiful boy</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Other conjunctions are far simpler, being particles that work the same with all constituents. E.g. <b>han</b> ‘or’:
<blockquote> <tt> matßemat han matolat</tt> <br/>
<b> matšemat <blu>han</blu> matɤlat</b> <br/>
summer or winter<br/>
<i> summer or winter</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Íin wily, han nen.</tt> <br/>
<b> Šin ʘily, <blu>han</blu> nen.</b> <br/>
eat.3 queen / or sleep-3<br/>
<i> The queen ate, or she slept.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Possession">Possession</a></h3>
The genitive is used for actual possession, and more abstract association— much like our ‘of’.
<blockquote> <tt> çɯny uçet</tt> <br/>
<b> ʇɯny <blu>ɯʇet</blu></b> <br/>
pot potter-gen<br/>
<i> the pot of the potter</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> hily uçet</tt> <br/>
<b> hily <blu>ɯʇet</blu></b> <br/>
wife potter-gen<br/>
<i> the wife of the potter</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> uß lyainyit</tt> <br/>
<b> ɯš <blu>lyainyit</blu></b> <br/>
forest icëlan-pl-gen<br/>
<i> the forest of the icëlani</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Again, the clitic –(a)t attaches to the end of the NP, which can produce a stack of clitics at the end of a complex phrase:
<blockquote> <tt> Cus nap nily sinynyitnyät.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kɯs nap nily siny<blu>nyitnyæt</blu>.</b> <br/>
go-1 house girl-beautiful-pl-gen-allat<br/>
<i> We’re going to the house of the beautiful girls</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Genitives are often lexicalized, with an initial <b>ʘ</b> deriving from <b>ʘe</b> ‘that’— e.g. <b>ʘe neʇat</b> ‘that of the bee’ > <b>ʘneʇat</b> ‘honey’; <b>ʘe gɤlyat</b> ‘that of the penis’ > <b>ʘgɤlyat</b> ‘semen’. This is also the regular way to form fractions, e.g. <b>ʘnyašit</b> ‘that of six > one sixth’.
<p><b>Existentials</b> are expressed with the verb <b>kɤ</b> (not <b>me</b>). Note that locatives are placed just after the verb, and the subject at the end.
<blockquote> <tt> Con na®il saßaly siny.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Kɤn</blu> naǁil sašaly siny.</b> <br/>
exist-3 city-loc prostitute beautiful<br/>
<i> There is a beautiful prostitute in the city.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<p>Possession uses the same expression, with a genitive in second position:
<blockquote> <tt> Con nilyat nap siny.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kɤn <blu>nilyat</blu> nap siny.</b> <br/>
be-3 girl-gen house beautiful<br/>
<i> The girl has a beautiful house.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
1st person possession uses the ventive:
<blockquote> <tt> Mucon nap siny </tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Mɯ</blu>kɤn nap siny </b> <br/>
vent-be-3 house beautiful<br/>
<i> I have a beautiful house. (Lit. there exists for me…)</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
2nd person possession uses the prefix <b>l</b>-; that is, ‘you’ is treated as the object.
<blockquote> <tt> Lcon hily siny.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>L</blu>kɤn hily siny.</b> <br/>
vent-be-3 wife beautiful<br/>
<i> You have a beautiful wife. (Lit. there exists you…)</i> <br/>
<br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Locatives">Locatives </a></h3>
The language has no prepositions, but it has three case clitics. Compare:
<blockquote> <tt> Ulyos na®il.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ɯlyɤs <blu>naǁil</blu>.</b> <br/>
reside-1 city-loc<br/>
<i> I live in the city.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Cos na®nyät.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kɯs <blu>naǁnyæt</blu>.</b> <br/>
go-1 city-allat<br/>
<i> I went to the city.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Cos na®ße.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kɯs <blu>naǁše</blu>.</b> <br/>
go-1 city-abl<br/>
<i> I left the city (literally, went from it).</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Like the plural and genitive, these are clitics, not affixes: <b>naǁ sinyil</b> ‘in the beautiful city’, <b>naǁ siny mæše</b> ‘from the beautiful big city’.
<p>For more precision, you can use expressions like
<blockquote> <tt> guhil dacat</tt> <br/>
<b> gɯh<blu>il</blu> dak<blu>at</blu></b> <br/>
bottom-loc tree-gen<br/>
<i> at the bottom of the tree</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
In the above sentences the locative is an argument. It can also be used as an NP modifier:
<blockquote> <tt> na® moi</tt> <br/>
<b> naǁ <blu>mɤi</blu></b> <br/>
city water-loc<br/>
<i> a city on the river</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Locatives are also used for time:
<ul>
<li>The adessive places an event in time: <b>bɯha nešil</b> ‘last night’
<li>The ablative refers to time since an event: <b>bɯha nešše</b> ‘since last night’
<li>The allative refers to time before an event: <b>bɯha nešnyæt</b> ‘until last night’
</ul>
For duration, use the quantifier <b>nya</b> ‘all’: <b>bɯha nyai</b> ‘all night’. But note that using the plural forces a distributive meaning: <b>bɯha nyanyi</b> ‘every night’.
<h3><a name="giving">Verbs of giving and speaking</a></h3>
Verbs of giving seem at first to be simple: the recipient takes the allative.
<blockquote> <tt> Pon hicnyät nam wily.</tt> <br/>
<b> Pɤn <blu>hiknyæt</blu> nam ʘily.</b> <br/>
give.3 husband-allat palace queen<br/>
<i> The queen gave her husband a palace.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
When the recipient is not explicitly given, however, it is represented by the object prefixes on the verb:
<blockquote> <tt> Spon nam wily.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>S</blu>pɤn nam ʘily.</b> <br/>
1-give.3 palace queen<br/>
<i> The queen gave me a palace.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Wpon nam wily.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>ʘ</blu>pɤn nam ʘily.</b> <br/>
3-give.3 palace queen<br/>
<i> The queen gave him a palace.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
A 1st person object can also be expressed with the ventive: <b>Mɯpɤn nam ʘily</b>.
<p>The same is true of verbs of speaking:
<blockquote> <tt> Lcan wnyit.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>L</blu>kan ʘnyit.</b> <br/>
2-speak.3 monster.<br/>
<i> The monster spoke to you.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Serial">Serial verbs</a></h3>
Sometimes the object of a verb is another verb. This is handled simply by placing it in the object slot, with no inflections.
<blockquote> <tt> Menon däfa nily.</tt> <br/>
<b> Menɤn <blu>dæfa</blu> nily.</b> <br/>
impf-want.3 dance girl<br/>
<i> The girl wants to dance.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
An object can be included, but it triggers verbal agreement on the main verb; this can be seen as a form of Raising.
<blockquote> <tt> Menon ßif whanet nily.</tt> <br/>
<b> Menɤn <blu>šif ʘhanet</blu> nily.</b> <br/>
impf-want.3 eat peach girl<br/>
<i> The girl wants to eat a peach.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Smenon cac nily.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>S</blu>menɤn <blu>kak</blu> nily.</b> <br/>
1-impf-want.3 speak girl<br/>
<i> The girl wants to speak to me.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If the subordinate verb is intransitive, its subject can be expressed, and also triggers object agreement on the main verb:
<blockquote> <tt> Meße®n ku çe nily.</tt> <br/>
<b> Mešeǁn <blu>kɯ ʇe</blu> nily.</b> <br/>
impf-await.3 go priest girl<br/>
<i> The girl hopes the priest will go.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Lmeße®n ku nily.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>L</blu>mešeǁn kɯ nily.</b> <br/>
2-impf-await.3 go girl<br/>
<i> The girl hopes you will go.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If you want to express both subject and object of the subordinated verb, there are two methods. First, the subordinate subject can be expressed as an allative:
<blockquote> <tt> Ren ßif whanet çenyät nily.</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁen <blu>šif ʘhanet ʇenyæt</blu> nily.</b> <br/>
order-3 eat peach priest-allat girl<br/>
<i> The girl ordered the priest to eat a peach.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Second, you can state the subordinated sentence separately, either fronted or backed, and refer to it with <b>ʘeh</b> ‘that’.
<blockquote> <tt> ‰en weh nily, ha-ßin whanet çe.</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁen ʘeh nily, <blu>ha-šin ʘhanet ʇe</blu>.</b> <br/>
order-3 that.one girl / irr-eat.3 peach priest <br/>
<i> The girl ordered the priest to eat a peach.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Note that the subordinated sentence is inflected like an independent sentence. In this case it’s irrealis, so that we’re reporting the order without stating that it was carried out. If the priest did eat the peach, you use the realis.
<h3><a name="Causatives">Causatives</a></h3>
There are three ways to form causatives.
<p>One is lexical, and is of course limited to what the lexicon supplies. E.g. <b>hol</b> is ‘see’, <b>naʘ</b> is ‘cause to see’, i.e. ‘show’. Also note the pattern exemplified by <b>ǁat</b> ‘kill’, which in the middle voice means ‘die’.
<p>Second, we can use a subordinated verb, often with the main verb <b>gai</b> ‘cause’:
<blockquote> <tt> Gain nily, ßin whanet çe.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gain nily, <blu>šin ʘhanet ʇe</blu>.</b> <br/>
cause-3 girl / eat peach priest <br/>
<i> The girl made the priest eat a peach.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Third, the causer can replace the subject, which is demoted to an allative:
<blockquote> <tt> Íin whanet çenyät nily.</tt> <br/>
<b> Šin ʘhanet <blu>ʇenyæt</blu> nily.</b> <br/>
eat.3 peach priest-allat girl<br/>
<i> The girl made the priest eat a peach.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
If the causee isn’t directly expressed, and the normal object is inanimate (like the peach), the causee triggers verbal agreement:
<blockquote> <tt> Wßin whanet nily.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>ʘ</blu>šin ʘhanet nily.</b> <br/>
3-eat.3 peach girl<br/>
<i> The girl made him eat a peach.</i> <br/>
<br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Purpose">Purpose</a></h3>
The organ of will was considered to be <b>mɯt</b>, the liver. This supplies idioms of intent or purpose, notably <b>mɯtil</b> X ‘intending to do X’. Note that X is usually uninflected, as aspect and arguments can be supplied from the context.
<blockquote> <tt> Popan utul, mutil niwa wnyit.</tt> <br/>
<b> Pɤpan ɯtɯl, <blu>mɯtil niʘa ʘnyit</blu>.</b> <br/>
walk-3 warrior / mind-in touch monster<br/>
<i> The warrior walked, intending to find the monster.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The interrogative <b>nyɤʘ</b> X ‘why X’ can also be used as an object:
<blockquote> <tt> Nɯßs nyow mocu.</tt> <br/>
<b> Nɯšs <blu>nyɤʘ mɤkɯ</blu>.</b> <br/>
seek-1 why vent-2-go<br/>
<i> I want to know why you came.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Relative">Relative clauses</a></h3>
Relative clauses are formed using the -<b>l</b> adjectizer, which produces a type of participle.
<blockquote> <tt> Min wilynyenyät çe.</tt> <br/>
<b> Min ʘilynyenyæt ʇe.</b> <br/>
sacrifice god-pl-allat priest<br/>
<i> The priest sacrificed to the gods.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> > çe micl wilynyenyät</tt> <br/>
<b> > ʇe mik<blu>l</blu> ʘilynyenyæt</b> <br/>
priest sacrifice-adj god-pl-allat <br/>
<i> the priest who sacrificed to the gods</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
The participle can optionally take inflections: <b>lmikl</b> ‘sacrificing to you’, <b>hamikl</b> ‘possibly sacrificing’, <b>miklǁ</b> ‘not sacrificing’, etc.
<p>If it’s the object that’s relativized, it should be represented by an object prefix on the participle.
<blockquote> <tt> ‰an wnyit utul.</tt> <br/>
<b> ǁan ʘnyit ɯtɯl.</b> <br/>
kill.3 monster warrior<br/>
<i> The warrior killed the monster.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> > wnyit wçanl utul.</tt> <br/>
<b> > ʘnyit <blu>ʘ</blu>ǁan<blu>l</blu> ɯtɯl.</b> <br/>
monster 3-kill.3 warrior<br/>
<i> the monster that the warrior killed</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="AspectC">Aspect contrasts</a></h3>
Often two adjacent sentences differ in aspect. The combination itself is meaningful.
<b>me</b> + ø (imperfective + perfective) expresses what action was going on when something else happened.
<blockquote> <tt> Me-nen wnyit, whon utul.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Me</blu>-nen ʘnyit, ʘhɤn ɯtɯl.</b> <br/>
impf-sleep-3 monster / 3-see-3 warrior<br/>
<i> The monster was sleeping when the warrior saw it.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<b>ha + me</b> (irrealis + imperfective) expresses a conditional. The presupposition is that the condition is untrue or unknown.
<blockquote> <tt> Ha-babeß ®o, me-babeß mupily.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Ha</blu>-babeš ǁɤ, <blu>me</blu>-babeš mɯpily.</b> <br/>
irr-mid-lose valley / impf-mid-lose queendom<br/>
<i> If the valley is lost, the country is lost.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<b>ha + ge</b> (irrealis + intentive) expresses a conditional vow or warning: “If this happens, may this happen!” In this construction only, <b>ge</b>- may be used for non-1st-person subjects.
<blockquote> <tt> Ha-bassac gupl, gi-emik poc.</tt> <br/>
<b> <blu>Ha</blu>-bassak gɯpl, <blu>gi</blu>-emik pɤk.</b> <br/>
irr-mid-heal dog-2 / intent-2-sacrifice flauk<br/>
<i> If your dog gets better, you must sacrifice a flauk.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Comparatives">Comparatives</a></h3>
The formula for the comparative is <be> NP <adj> <comparator> NP-loc:
<blockquote> <tt> Men Laß siny se Filai.</tt> <br/>
<b> Men Laš siny <blu>se</blu> Filai.</b> <br/>
be-3 Laš beautiful more Fila-loc<br/>
<i> Laš is more beautiful than Fila.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
For “less” use <b>kai</b> in place of <b>se</b>.
<p>Without a comparison NP, the expression is superlative:
<blockquote> <tt> Men Laß siny se.</tt> <br/>
<b> Men Laš siny <blu>se</blu>.</b> <br/>
be-3 Laš beautiful more <br/>
<i> Laš is the most beautiful.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h2><a name="Semantic">Semantic fields</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Polite">Polite formulas</a></h3>
The standard exchange of greetings is <b>Me-lkaks / Me-diʇs</b>, literally “I am speaking to you” / “I am listening.”
<p>With nobles, a lesser person instead says <b>Baʘɯts</b> ‘I abase myself’. You can add a title, but the Šɯʇ norm is for inferiors to say as little as possible, not to be florid.
<p>Lower-class people are known, or notorious, for the greeting <b>ssǁ</b>— the [s] is loud and prolonged. A relatively mild put-down for the masses is <b>ʇsǁ</b>, the people who say <b>ssǁ</b>.
<p>On parting, you say <b>tan ʘinye</b>, literally “The gods call”— the idea being that only a summons from the gods is grounds for ending a conversation. The response is <b>Tan kɯbæ</b> “They summon so go!” (a rare use of the conjunctive clitic with verbs).
<p>If you receive something, you say <b>Enyɤl</b> ‘you are kind’; the response is <b>Ekak</b> ‘you say it’, which in general is used for noncomittal replies (“is that so”).
<p>If you’re mildly sorry about something, you say <b>Mæm dɯǁs</b> ‘great is my sin’; the response is <b>kɤǁ</b> ‘it doesn’t exist’.
<p>You would add honorifics before a superior’s name, and in elite contexts, to an equal’s or even a lofty inferior’s: <b>ʘily Laš</b> ‘Queen Laš’, <b>An Laš</b> ‘Lady Laš’, <b>hɯm Laš</b> ‘elder Laš’, <b>umɤ Laš</b> ‘older brother Laš’. An all-purpose honorific was <b>sɤl</b> ‘good’.
<h3><a name="Kinship">Kinship terms</a></h3>
In Lewis Morgan’s terms, Šɯk has a variant of the Iroquois kinship system. The basis of this is bifurcate merging. The key points:
<ul>
<li><b>pa</b> is your mother and her sister (your maternal aunt)
<li><b>na</b> is your father and his brother (your paternal uncle).
<li><b>mɤly</b> is the daughter of any <b>pa</b>— i.e. your sister, or your cousins from a maternal aunt
<li><b>umɤ</b> is the son of any <b>na</b>—your brother, or your cousins from a paternal uncle
</ul>
The “merging” is the use of ‘father’ and ‘mother’ for their same-sex siblings. The “bifurcate” part refers to the remaining aunts and uncles having their own terms:
<ul>
<li><b>ɤmi</b> is your mother’s brother (i.e. your maternal uncle)
<ul>
<li>the son of an <b>ɤmi</b> is also called <b>ɤmi</b>
<li>the daughter of an <b>ɤmi</b> is <b>ʇɤmi</b>
</ul>
<li><b>heʘ</b> is your father’s sister (your paternal aunt)
<ul>
<li><b>nɯi</b> is the child, male or female, of your <b>heʘ</b>
</ul>
</ul>
<center>
<img src="illo/Shwt-kinship.png">
<i><br/>star = ego; triangles = males; circles = females</i></center>
The merging intensifies in previous and later generations. E.g.:
<ul><li><b>papɤt</b> is literally ‘<b>pa</b> of <b>pa</b>’; it covers what we’d call your grandmother, grandmother’s sister, aunt’s mother, and aunt’s mother’s sister. <b>Nanɤt</b> works similarly for males.
<li>The child of any <b>umɤ</b> or <b>mɤly</b> is a <b>mɤs</b>— look at the chart above to see what a range of people this covers. The child of a <b>nɯi</b> is a <b>nɯis</b>.
<li>The children of any <b>(ʇ)ɤmi</b> simply repeat the pattern: male <b>ɤmi</b>, female <b>ʇɤmi</b>.
</ul>
The kinship names are reflected in noble inheritance rules. E.g., suppose you are a woman and the daughter of a chief (<b>an</b>). The heir of your mother is her younger sister— you call both of these <b>pa</b>. However, you are next in line after both <b>pa</b>, even if your aunt has female children. Next is your sister if any, and then your daughter.
<p>Relatives of your spouse are formed with the appropriate genitive, e.g. <b>pa hilyat</b> ‘mother of-wife = mother-in-law’. If it’s clear (e.g. on second reference, or addressing the person), you can just say <b>hilyat</b>, or <b>hikat</b> if you’re female.
<h3><a name="Names">Names </a></h3>
Most names are ordinary nouns or adjectives, often relating to nature. Some examples:
<b>bɯha</b> night, <b>dak</b> tree, <b>fila</b> flower, <b>gɤš</b> moss, <b>keǁ</b> sword, <b>kip</b> green, <b>laš</b> storm, <b>lyai</b> icëlan, <b>neʇ</b> bee, <b>nɤf</b> love, <b>nyɤl</b> kind, <b>nyaš</b> bravery, <b>siny</b> lovely, <b>sɤl</b> good, <b>šɤm</b> blue, <b>tɤl</b> snow, <b>ɯdæfa</b> dancer, <b>ɯš</b> woods, <b>ǁika</b> sea, <b>ǁitl</b> vigorous
<p>Names are unisex, at least from the time of queen <b>Nyaʇa</b> who established female dominance in the nobility.
<p>One-syllable names are preferred, but two-word N+A phrases are not uncommon, e.g. <b>meʇsiny</b> ‘beautiful boy’, <b>filašɤm</b> ‘blue flower’, <b>keǁip</b> ‘fast sword’.
<p>Names can also be inflected verbs:
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> šeǁs</b> </td> <td> we waited</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> snan</b> </td> <td> he/she (probably a god) showed to us</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gemih</b> </td> <td> I will sacrifice</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kakan</b> </td> <td> he/she talks a lot</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
In such names final 3s -<b>n</b> is optional: the last name could also be <b>kakak</b>. Queen Nyaʇa’s name means ‘it thunders’.
<h2><a name="Samples">Sample texts</a></h2>
<h3><a name="Gods">1 • Gods and humans</a></h3>
This short text is a history of the universe. A longer version of the story exists but only in Verdurian translation. This version was elicted from one of Vrzol Šin’s informants in the 3580s, so it is distinctive in being a colloquial prose retelling, and in containing a theological explanation for the disasters the Šɯʇ had just gone through: disease and colonization.
<p>The text explains, but also simplifies, the two classes of spriritual beings— gods (m. <b>ʘi</b>, f. <b>ʘily</b>) and spirits or godlings (<b>fæm</b> ‘great soul’). The gods were powerful; there was at least one per valley, with the gods of the Šɤ valley (<b>ʘai Ɯʇa</b> and <b>An ǁikam</b>) above them all. The godlings had less power, but were far more approachable. There was a tendency, not universal, for the elite to worship gods and the rabble to follow spirits, which may mean that they are really from different religious systems entirely.
<blockquote> <tt> Mat saii, con no Wai Uça.</tt> <br/>
<b> Mat saii, kɤn nɤ ʘai Ɯʇa.</b> <br/>
day early-loc / exist-3 only lord shaper<br/>
<i> One day, there was only ʘai Ɯʇa. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Con® nëcnë si.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kɤnǁ nyeknye si.</b> <br/>
exist-3-not land-pl<br/>
<i> There was no world, no spirits. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Çan An ‰icam hilyno wgolyatnoße.</tt> <br/>
<b> ʇan An ǁikam hilynɤ ʘgɤlyatnɤše.</b> <br/>
create-3 lady ocean semen-3-abl / wife-3<br/>
<i> He created An ǁikam from his semen as his wife.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Wmon çiçi lyo, ifa mon alynë çiçiny: men fämnë.</tt> <br/>
<b> ʘmɤn ʇiʇi lyɤ, ifa mɤn alynye ʇiʇiny: men fæmnye.</b> <br/>
3-bear-3 child many-pl / and 3-bear other-pl child / be-3 spirit-pl <br/>
<i> She bore him many children, and their children had other children, who were the spirits.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Con® upit nap, hoi gain wai Uça Weš Wai Nëh, ifa çan nëc mobä.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kɤnǁ ɯpit nap, hɤi gain ʘai Ɯʇa ʘeš ʘai Nyeh, ifa ʇan nyek mɤbæ.</b> <br/>
exist-3-not that.one-gen house / therefore cause-3 lord shaper fear lord chaos / and create-3 land water-and<br/>
<i> There was no room for them, so ʘai Ɯʇa frightened Chaos and made land and water.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ulyon wi fämnëbäi, ifa wtun Wai Nëh buha nyai.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ɯlyɤn ʘi fæmnyebæi, ifa ʘtɯn ʘai Nyeh bɯha nyai.</b> <br/>
reside-3 god spirit-pl-and land-loc / and 3-fight-3 lord chaos night every-loc<br/>
<i> The gods and the spirits lived in the land, but Chaos fought them every night.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Oçlil, çen Wai Nëh An ‰icam, hoi con saßa.</tt> <br/>
<b> ɤʇlil, ʇen ʘai Nyeh An ǁikam, hɤi kɤn saša.</b> <br/>
end-loc / destroy-3 lord chaos lady ocean / therefore exist-3 peace<br/>
<i> Finally An ǁikam destroyed Chaos, so that there was peace.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Con wi fämnëbä, ifa nëßnë si.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kɤn ʘi fæmnyebæ, ifa nyešnye si.</b> <br/>
exist-3 god spirit-pl-and human-pl none-and<br/>
<i> There were gods and spirits, but no humans.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Fifihan fämnë mecat winyat.</tt> <br/>
<b> Fifihan fæmnye mekat ʘinyat.</b> <br/>
hab-work-3 spirit-pl foot-loc gods-pl-gen<br/>
<i> The spirits worked for the gods. </i> <br/> <br/>
<tt> Ninin ßaßal šalacbä, ifa çoçoin ®ony, ifa mimin.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ninin šašal šalakbæ, ifa ʇɤʇɤin ǁɤny, ifa mimin.</b> <br/>
hab-grow-3 junegrass knotcorn-and, and hab-dig-3 valley-pl and hab-sacrifice-3<br/>
<i> They grew grain and dug river valleys and made sacrifices.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Loßan ifa on fiha.</tt> <br/>
<b> Lɤšan ifa ɤn fiha.</b> <br/>
tired-3 and stop-3 work<br/>
<i> They were tired and stopped working.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Wcu mutil daš nyow mumin®.</tt> <br/>
<b> ʘkɯ mɯtil daš nyɤʘ muminǁ.</b> <br/>
3-go-3 god mind-loc know why vent-sacrifice-3-not<br/>
<i> The gods came to them to see why they did not sacrifice.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Can fämnë, Loßas fiha.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kan fæmnye, Lɤšas fiha.</b> <br/>
say-3 spirit-pl / tired-1 work<br/>
<i> “We are tired of working,” said the spirits. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Mes® çiçil mew? Ge-fihas® se.</tt> <br/>
<b> Mesǁ ʇiʇil meʘ? Ge-fihasǁ se.</b> <br/>
be-1-not child-2-pl Q / intent-work-not more<br/>
<i> “Aren’t we your own children? We will not work any more.”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Gegen winy, ifa wcon® fämnyit dihnë.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gegen ʘiny, ifa ʘkɤnǁ fæmnyit dihnye.</b> <br/>
hab-talk-3 god-pl / and 3-exist-3-not spirit-pl-gen ear-pl<br/>
<i> The gods talked and talked, but the spirits had no ears for them.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Can An ‰icam, ge-ça ufihnë nyuße, sfihal.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kan An ǁikam, ge-ʇa ɯfihnye nyɯše, sfihal.</b> <br/>
say-3 lady ocean / intent-make worker-pl sand-abl / 1-work-adj<br/>
<i> An ǁikam said, “We will make workers from sand, to work for us.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ceh ha-doman, ge-spoç nepe a® wit.</tt> <br/>
<b> Keh ha-dɤman, ge-spɤʇ nepe aǁ ʘit.</b> <br/>
however irr-live-3 / intent-1-give body dead god-gen<br/>
<i> But to make them live, you must give me the dead body of a god.”</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ba®an wi Uhol®.</tt> <br/>
<b> Baǁan ʘi Ɯhɤlǁ.</b> <br/>
mid-kill-3 god one-see-not<br/>
<i> The god Ɯhɤlǁ [The Blind One] was killed.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Men wi çlicat, ifa weh nyow con® wi çlicil.</tt> <br/>
<b> Men ʘi ʇlikat, ifa ʘeh nyɤʘ kɤnǁ ʘi ʇlikil.</b> <br/>
be-3 god Črek-gen / and that-one why exist-3-not god Črek-loc<br/>
<i> He was the god of Črek, and this is why Črek has no god.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Çan nëßnë An ‰icam, ifa fifihan nëßnë mekat winyit.</tt> <br/>
<b> ʇan nyešnye An ǁikam, ifa fifihan nyešnye mekat ʘinyat.</b> <br/>
make-3 human-pl lady ocean / and hab-work-3 human-pl foot-loc god-pl-gen<br/>
<i> An ǁikam made humans, and the humans worked for the gods.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Pupulyan ®onë nëßnë.</tt> <br/>
<b> Pɯpɯlyan ǁɤnye nyešnye.</b> <br/>
hab-fill-3 valley-pl human-pl<br/>
<i> The humans filled the valleys. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Oçlil, pägain ®o nyany Nyaça ifa men wily.</tt> <br/>
<b> ɤʇlil, pægain ǁɤ nyany Nyaʇa ifa men ʘily.</b> <br/>
end-loc unite-3 valley all-pl Nyaʇa and be-3 queen<br/>
<i> Finally Nyaʇa brought all the valleys together and became queen.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Goçan gä daßaçil ifa ba®an.</tt> <br/>
<b> Gɤʇan gæ dašaʇil ifa baǁan.</b> <br/>
rule-3 year hundred-loc / and mid-kill-3<br/>
<i> She ruled for a hundred years, then died.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ceh çeçeça nëßnë ifa mimin gapum, hoi cäcän wily çeçno.</tt> <br/>
<b> Keh ʇeʇeʇa nyešnye ifa mimin gapɯm, hɤi kækæn ʘily ʇeʇnɤ.</b> <br/>
however hab-noisy-3 human-pl and hab-sacrifice-3 not.enough / therefore hab-molest-3 god-pl noise-3<br/>
<i> But the humans were noisy and did not sacrifice enough, and their noise bothered the gods.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Hoi gun çbedurnë mutil çen Íuç.</tt> <br/>
<b> Hɤi gɯn ʇbedɯrnye mɯtil ʇen Šɯʇ.</b> <br/>
therefore send-3 Verdurian-pl mind-loc destroy Šɯʇ<br/>
<i> Therefore they sent the Verdurians to destroy Šɯʇ.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Bah nyow mocu.</tt> <br/>
<b> Bah nyɤʘ mɤkɯ.</b> <br/>
this-thing-3 why vent-2-go <br/>
<i> This is why you (Verdurians) came.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Recording">2 • Recording</a></h3>
We have several phonograph recordings of classical Šɯk— mostly song performances, stories, and word lists. This one was not very successful from the linguist’s point of view, but it was retained as it was one of the few recordings of a Šɯt speaking colloquially, not performing a bit of folklore. The linguist did not record her own questions or statements, though they should be obvious.
<p>(To come: a voice recording of part of this text.)
<blockquote> <tt> Basseta Lyai.</tt> <br/>
<b> Basseta Lyai.</b> <br/>
mid-1-name-3 Lyai<br/>
<i> My name is Lyai. </i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Doma gä teha ely.</tt> <br/>
<b> Dɤma gæ teha ely.</b> <br/>
live-1 year 18 4<br/>
<i> I’m 72 years old. (A round number in eighteens— he could be anywhere 72 or older.)</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ecac ow?</tt> <br/>
<b> Ekak ɤʘ?</b> <br/>
say-2 what<br/>
<i> What did you say?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Cac ®ec, musoson® dih mui.</tt> <br/>
<b> Kak ǁek, mɯsɤsɤnǁ dih mɯi.</b> <br/>
say loud / vent-hab-good-3-not ear somewhat<br/>
<i> Speak louder, I’m a little deaf.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ge-cac nilunyä mew? weh nyow?</tt> <br/>
<b> Ge-kak nilɯnyæt meʘ? ʘeh nyɤʘ?</b> <br/>
intent-speak machine-allat Q / that why<br/>
<i> I should speak to the machine? Why?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Lcon dihnë; con nilut dihnë mew?</tt> <br/>
<b> Lkɤn dihnye; kɤn nilɯt dihnye meʘ?</b> <br/>
2-exist-3 ear-pl / exist-3 machine-gen ear-pl Q<br/>
<i> You have ears, does the machine have ears?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Sßän gi-ecac, nilu.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sšæn gi-ekak, nilɯ.</b> <br/>
1-say-3 intent-2-speak / machine<br/>
<i> She asked me to speak to you, the machine.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Sɤl, kan®.</tt> <br/>
<b> Sɤl, kanǁ.</b> <br/>
good / say-3-not<br/>
<i> Miss, It doesn’t say anything.</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Con ®itil nilut ow?</tt> <br/>
<b> Kɤn ǁitil nilɯt ɤʘ?</b> <br/>
exist-3 heart-in machine-gen what<br/>
<i> What is inside the machine?</i> <br/>
<br/>
<tt> Ai weh. Cocon elët nilut lyonë hopat bahat.</tt> <br/>
<b> Ai ʘeh. Kɤkɤn elyet nilɯt lyɤnye hɤpat bahat.</b> <br/>
oh that-thing / hab-exist-3 queen-gen machine many-pl face-gen this-thing-gen<br/>
<i> Oh yes. The queen had many machines like this.</i> <br/>
</blockquote>
Presumably because he’s speaking to a Verdurian, Lyai uses the Verdurian word for queen, <b>elye</b> (< <i>elrei</i>).
<h2><a name="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></h2>
Alphabetization:
<ul><li>æ follows a
<li>ɤ takes the place of o
<li>ɯ takes the place of u
<li>ʘ ʇ ǁ appear at the end.
</ul>
Bh indicates Bhöɣetan borrowings, V Verdurian, K Kebreni.
<p>Word count: 503
<blockquote> <table>
<tr> <td> <b> ai</b> </td> <td> interj</td> <td> oh, ooh, ah</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> afa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> blow; breathe</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> afah</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> breath; breeze</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aly</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> other, another; (answering a negative questiion) no, it did happen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> an</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> lady, chief, noblewoman</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> anl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> noble, high-born</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> An ǁikam</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the chief goddess [‘Lady Ocean’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aʘis</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> statue of a nude goddess, bringing blessings [Bh apsiś ‘nymph’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> aǁ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> dead</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> æh</b> </td> <td> interj</td> <td> ow, ugh</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ætaš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> fox</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bah</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> this one (inanimate)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> baly</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> this</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -bæ</b> </td> <td> afx</td> <td> comitative</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bæl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> hand</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bedɯk</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Verdurian language </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Bedɯr</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Verduria [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bepɯš</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> rifle, gun [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> besak</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Wesaitan language</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Besat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Wesaita [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> beš</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> lose; (middle) be lost</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> beših</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> loss</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> biʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> side, flank</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Bɤgat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Bhöɣeta Sea [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Bɤhat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Bhohait (country) [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bɤl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> eye</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bɤla</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> guard, watch over; check, test; spy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bɤǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> rock, stone</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bɤǁl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> rocky, stony</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> bɯha</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> night</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dak</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> tree</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dalɯ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> king (of Verduria) [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> daš</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> know</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dašaʇ</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> one hundred [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> daših</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> knowledge</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dek</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> ten [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dæ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> moral, right, virtuous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dæh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> morality, virtue</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dæf</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> dance</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dæfa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> dance</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dæm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> back </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dæml</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> posterior, in or at the back</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> delæ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ash, ashes; soot; ink</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> delæl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> ashy; gray</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> den</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> document, paper; relic [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ear; listening</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> diʇ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> hear, listen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dɤm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> life</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dɤma</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> live</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dɤsat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> salmon </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dɯi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> steam [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dɯk</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bean [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dɯl</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> miss (not hit); fail; sin</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> dɯǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> failure; sin</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ebæs</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> condor (a bird of prey native to eastern Lebiscuri)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ekak</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> you’re welcome (response to thanks); so you say, do tell [‘you say it’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> eke</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> one third</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Eles</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Eleď, Verdurian deity— in full ʘai Eles [V]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ely</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> four</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> elye</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> queen (of Verduria) [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> enyɤl</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> thank you [‘you are kind’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ep</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> seven [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> faba</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> breast</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fak</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> knot, binding</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> faka</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> tie, bind; wear (i.e. tie on)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fakah</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> skirt; clothing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fala</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> coin, money (esp. Ereláean) [V fale]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fæm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> godling, minor deity, spirit [‘great spirit’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fæml</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> uncanny, fae; relating to godlings; name of a river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fæt</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> soul, spirit</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fila</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> flower</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> work, toil</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fiha</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> work, toil</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fiʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> blood</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fiʇl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> bloody</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fɤt</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> door, gate; entrance</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fɤta</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> enter</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fɯl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> light, white</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fɯm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> silver [‘great white’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> fɯna</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> apple [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gai</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> make (someone do), cause</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gapa</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> tail</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gapɯm</b> </td> <td> adv</td> <td> not enough [‘bad amount’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gasɤl</b> </td> <td> adv</td> <td> enough [‘good amount’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> amount, sum; rate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gæ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> year</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gæl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> tall, high</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ge</b> </td> <td> pfx</td> <td> intentive prefix</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gep</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> talk, chat, converse (3s form gem)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> geʘ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> conversation, chat</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> geʘem</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> argue [gep-šem ‘talk hot’] </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɤ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> drink</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɤh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> drink</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɤly</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> penis</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɤm</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> you</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɤš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> moss</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɤʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> head; capital (city); rule</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɤʇa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> rule, reign</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɯ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> send, cause to go</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɯh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bottom, base; ground, floor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɯha</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> found, establish; (middle) be located</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɯi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> way, manner; path [related to ‘send’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɯn</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> skin</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> gɯp</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> dog</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> haly</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> girl child, daughter</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> han</b> </td> <td> conj</td> <td> or</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ha</b> </td> <td> pfx</td> <td> irrealis prefix</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> had</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> line, row [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hakak</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> whisper [imitative ha + ‘say’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> han</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> field, yard</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Hanan</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Hanuana</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> he</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> temple</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hela</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> round, curved</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> helah</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ball; sphere</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> heʘ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> aunt (father’s sister only)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> heš </b> </td> <td> v, n</td> <td> wash, clean</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hi</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> two</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> higai</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> divide, cut In two</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> higaih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> division</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hik</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> companion, partner; husband</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hikat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> father- or mother-in-law (of wife)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hily</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> female companion; wife</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hilyat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> father- or mother-in-law (of husband)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hiʘɤ</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> some</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> his</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> fast, quick</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hisa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> run</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɤh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> vision, looking, observation</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɤi</b> </td> <td> conj</td> <td> therefore, so</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɤl</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> see, look at; habitual observe, watch</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɤlǁ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> blind, unseeing [‘not see’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɤp</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> face, front</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɤpl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> frontal, in front</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɯ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> cry; mourn</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɯh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> tears; mourning</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɯkal</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> coastal desert; the arid places between the valleys</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɯm</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> old, aged; elder</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> hɯmih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> age</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ih</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> small, little</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ifa</b> </td> <td> conj</td> <td> and, then, moreover</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> iʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> center, middle</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> iʇl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> central, middle</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kai</b> </td> <td> adv</td> <td> less</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kak</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> speak, say</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kah</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> language, speech, speaking</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kap</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> hide, conceal; (middle) be hidden. 3s form is kam</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kæʘ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> bother, molest, annoy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Kebi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Kebri [K]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kebik</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Kebreni language</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> keh</b> </td> <td> conj</td> <td> however, but, in contrast</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kel</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> a Verdurian city [V ‘port’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ket</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> different, separate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> keta</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> separate; treat differently</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> keʘ</b> </td> <td> v, n</td> <td> drop; (middle) fall</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> keǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sword</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kip</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> green</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kiʇ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> steal, rob</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɤ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> exist; there is/are (existential verb)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɤba</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> gather, collect; fish </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɤh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> thread, string [Bh, with nominalizer]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɤla</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> oil [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɯ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> go</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɯh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> road, route; departure</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɯm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> fire</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> kɯna</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> money, coins [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> labah</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> lorbil, a type of squash [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> laš</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> storm</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lip</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> teach; counsel, advise; (middle) learn, study (3s form lim)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lis</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> build, erect</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> liʘ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> teaching, education; advice, counsel</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lɤpih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> song</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lɤpi</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> sing</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lɤš </b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> tired</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lɤša</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> be tired, be worn out</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lɯk</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> run, manage, lead</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lɯka</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> twelve [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lɯl</b> </td> <td> b</td> <td> beard</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyai</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> icëlan</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyeh</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> ten</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyes</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> have sex, make love; (n) sex</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyika</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> star [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyɤ</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> much, many</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> lyɯ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> hide; leather</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mah</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> milk</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> maha</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> nurse (a baby); (middle) suck, be nursed</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mahl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> milky; name of a river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mai</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> half</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> makak</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> moan, murmur [imitative ma + ‘say’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mal</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> sit; serve, work for</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> malih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> servant</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mašuh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> beer, fermented drink</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mašuk</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> brew, ferment; (middle) be fermented [Bh ‘brewer’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> day; time
<br/> <i> An Mat</i> Ënomai, the Sun </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> matɤlat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> winter [‘time of snow’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> matmɤkat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> birth, birthday [‘day of bearing’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> matšemat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> summer [‘time of heat’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> maʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> luster, shine</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> maʇa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> shine</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> maǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> gold [from ‘shine’]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mæ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> big, large</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mækak</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> shout [‘big say’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mæm</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> great, huge, enormous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> me</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> be; (as clitic) imperfective</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mek</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> foot; mekat X-(gen) for X, on X’s behalf</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> meʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> boy, son</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> meǁ</b> </td> <td> pt</td> <td> no [‘it is not’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> meʘ</b> </td> <td> pt</td> <td> question particle [‘be’ + interrogative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mida</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> nine [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sacrifice, worship</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mik</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> sacrifice (to gods), worship [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Misæt</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Mirzait [Bh]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɤ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> water; river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɤgɤh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> tavern, inn [‘place of drink’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɤk</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> bear, give birth; (middle) be born</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɤl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> watery, liquid</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɤly</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sister (daughter of a pa) [‘born’ + fem.]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɤs</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> grandchild (child of a umɤ or mɤly) [‘born more’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> lie down, recline</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯbesat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> shop, store [‘place of the Wesaitan’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯg</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> heavy, dense</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯi</b> </td> <td> adv</td> <td> somewhat, a little, partly</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯil</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> partial; scanty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯlip</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> school [‘place of learning’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯlyes</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> brothel [‘place of sex’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯpily</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> country, kingdom, queendom [‘place of queen’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯs</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> place, location, site</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯsa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> put, place</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> worm, grub</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯt</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> liver; (metaphorically) mind, will; (loc) intending to, of a mind to</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> mɯtl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> willful, impulsive</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> na</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> father, father’s brother</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nabir</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ship [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nak</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> edge, rim; shore, beach</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nal</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> urban, of or in the city</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nam</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> palace, mansion; court [‘big house’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naml</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> courtly, governmental</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nan</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> short</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nanɤt</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> grandfather (i.e. the na of any na) [‘father of father’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nap</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> house</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> city, town </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> naʘ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> show, draw attention to, cause to see</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> næ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> throw, cast</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> næh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> slingshot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> næp</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> wise; prudent</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> næpih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> wisdom, prudence</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nef</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> nine [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nepe</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> body</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ne</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> sleep</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> neh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sleep</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> neš </b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> previous, last</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> neteǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> viper, poisonous snake in the coastal valleys; slang for Verdurians</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> neʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bee</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ni</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> young, new</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> opening, hole</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nil</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> feminine, female</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nilɯ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> machine, device, contraption [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nily</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> young woman, girl, maiden</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nim</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> I</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nis</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> plant, sow, grow (tr.); farm; (middle) grow (intr.)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> niʘ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> finger</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> niʘa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> touch; find, locate</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> niǁ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> open</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɤ</b> </td> <td> pt</td> <td> only, just, nothing but</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɤf</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> desire, need, love</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɤi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> herb, weed</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɤʘǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bitterleaf (ŋastwaśam)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɤnɤp</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> obsidian [from a western language]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɤǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> seed, egg</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɯh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> pursuit, chase, hunting</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɯi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> cousin (see kinship section)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɯis</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> child of a cousin (see kinship section)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɯš </b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> follow, chase; seek, search for; hunt; want to know</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nɯʘ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> cod, a commonly caught fish </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nya</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> each, every</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyaʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> thunder, lightning (they’re viewed as a combo)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyaʇa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> thunder, strike (of lightning)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Nyaʇa </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the queen who conquered all of Šɯʇ [‘thunders’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyaʇap</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> eight [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyaši</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> six [Bh]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyalɯ</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> seven [Bh]</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyar</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> five [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyaš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bravery, boldness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyašl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> brave, bold</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyæk</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> garlic [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyæt</b> </td> <td> afx</td> <td> allative</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nye</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> malignant, evil</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyeh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> evil, chaos</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyek</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> earth, land; (pl) the world, Almea</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyeš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> human; person, individual; (pl) people</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyešl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> human, mortal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> lie, deception</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyik</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bug, insect</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyily</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> lie, deceive (3s form nyiny)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyɤh</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> kind, generous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyɤša</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> fish</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyɤʘ</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> why, for what reason</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> nyɯ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sand</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɤmi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> uncle (mother’s brother only); the son of any (ʇ)ɤmi</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɤʘ</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> who, what</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɤʇ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> stop, end, finish; (as prefix) stop (doing that)!</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɤʇl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> end, finish; (locative) finally, at last</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pa</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> mother or mother’s sister</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pal</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> four [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pan</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> five [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> papɤt</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> grandmother (i.e the pa of any pa) [‘mother of mother’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pæ</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> one</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pægai</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> unite, bring together [‘make one’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pægaih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> unity</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pæš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bresh, a plant producing a fabric like cotton [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pely</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> cat</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> piri</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> tell, recount</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pirih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> story, tale</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɤk</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> flauk (large lagomorph) [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɤp</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> leg; walk</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɤpa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> walk</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɤš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> fat, grease</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɤšl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> fat, fatty</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɤʇ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> give</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɯly</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> full, filled</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɯlya</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> fill; (middle) intr.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɯm</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> bad; sick, ill</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɯt</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sauce, cream; any viscous liquid</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɯtl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> creamy, viscous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɯǁ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> foolish, stupid</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> pɯǁa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> act foolish, make a dumb mistake</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sai</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> early; ancient</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sak</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> heal, cure; care for; middle get better</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> salat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> arrow [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> saša</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ease, relief; peace</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sašaly</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> whore, prostitute [‘ease woman’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> se</b> </td> <td> adv</td> <td> more</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ses</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> six [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sesɯn</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ktuvok [Hanuanan]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> set</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> name</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> seta</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> name (someone), call; (middle) be named</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> si</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> none, not any</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> food; meal</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sil</b> </td> <td> n, a</td> <td> hair; hairy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> siny</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> beautiful, lovely</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ssǁ</b> </td> <td> interj</td> <td> hoy! hello!</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sɤl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> good</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sɯm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bone; tooth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sʘ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> fry; cook, prepare food [imitative]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šalak</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> knotcorn [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šap</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> frog; drunk, high; (verb) be drunk— 3s is šam</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šašal</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> junegrass [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> sašur</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Šočyan governor [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šæh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> request; beg; prayer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šæha</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> ask, request; pray</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šæla</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> oasis, spring</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šæm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> smoke</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šæml</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> smoky</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šæp</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> a peachlike fruit; an Ereláean (because of the skin color)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šæs</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> dark; brown, black; a river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> -še</b> </td> <td> afx</td> <td> ablative</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šel</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sky</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šem</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> heat; the south</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šeml</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> hot; southern</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šeǁ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> expect, wait for, hope</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šif</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> eat</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šil</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> male, masculine</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šim</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> young man, youth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šiš </b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> cold; northern</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šiših</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> cold; the north</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šɤ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> long</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Šɤ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> a river valley [‘long’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šɤk</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> eight [V]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> šɤm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> blue</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Šɯk</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the language of Šɯʇ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> Šɯʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the people or nation of Šɯʇ (Šočya), or of the Šɤ valley [‘of Šɤ’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tam</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> call, summon</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> thing, object, item</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> teha</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> eighteen [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tenaʇ</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> 324 (182) [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> titɯ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bird</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tɤk</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> rod, staff</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tɤka</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> strike, beat</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tɤl</b> </td> <td> n/v</td> <td> snow</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tɯh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> war, fight</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tɯl</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> fight, go to war</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tɯm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> mountain; (in pl) the mountains west of Šɯʇ; the west</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tɯml</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> western; mountainous</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯbaly</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> this one (animate) </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯbalip</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> student</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯbɤl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> guard; spy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯda</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> flour [Bh]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯfih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> worker; commoner</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯɤgɤly</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> tavern-keeper (usually female) </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯhɤl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> watcher, observer; herdsman</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯhɤlǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> blind person </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯhɯkal</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> scavenger, esp. someone who hunts in the coastal desert (hɯkal)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯkiʇ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> thief, robber</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯkɤba</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> fisherman</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯlip</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> teacher; counselor, advisor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯlɤpi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> singer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯlɯk</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> leader, manager</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯlyes</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> lover, sex partner</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯly</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> holy, sacred, numinous; name of a river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯlyɤ</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> live in, reside, inhabit</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯmal</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> servant, esp. male</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯmaly</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> maid, maidservant</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯmašuk</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> brewer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯmɤ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> brother (son of a pa) [‘one born’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯna</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> nose</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯnan</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> elcar [‘short one’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯnæ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> peltast, slingshotter</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯnæp</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> wise person, sage</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯnis</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> farmer, peasant</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯnyeh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> villain [‘evil one’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯpe</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> that one (animate)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯpɯǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> fool, idiot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯsai</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> ancestor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯsak</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> healer, physician; caregiver</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯsalat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bowman, archer</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯsiny</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> a beauty, a beautiful girl/boy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯsʘ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> cook</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> forest, woods</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯšap</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> drunkard</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯšæh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> beggar</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯšɤm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> iliu [‘blue one’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯtɯl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> fighter, warrior, soldier</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯš </b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> egg</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯʇa</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> shaper; potter</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ɯǁe</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> commander</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘ</b> </td> <td> pt</td> <td> yes! (short for ʘeh); as prefix, forms nominalizations and fractions</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘai</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> lord, nobleman</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘai Ɯʇa</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> consort of An ǁikam ; former chief god [‘Lord Shaper’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘæʘ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> insane, crazy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘæʘih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> insanity, madness</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘdakat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> wood [‘that of the tree’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘe</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> that (demonstrative)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘeh</b> </td> <td> pr</td> <td> that one (inanimate); (answering a question) yes</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘelyat</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> quarter, one fourth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘeš </b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> fear, be afraid</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘgɤlyat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> semen [‘that of the penis’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘgɯl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> cargo, merchandise [‘that sent’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘha</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> lip</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘhanet</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> peach [‘thing of Hanuana’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> god</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘil</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> divine, godly</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘily</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> goddess; queen</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘilyat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the capital of Šɯʇ (Verd. Bílët) [‘(city) of the queen’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘilyni</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> princess, heir to the throne [‘new queen’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘisa</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> strong; last queen of Šɯʇ (to the Verdurians, Bisa)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘlis</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> building</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘlyɯ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> bag, sack [‘that of leather’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘket</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> tongue [‘that of speaking’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘmidet</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> one ninth; tax</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘneʇat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> honey [‘that of the bee’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘnyarat</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> one fifth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘnyit</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> monster [‘that of evil’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘšæs</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> coal, charcoal [‘that black’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘɤ</b> </td> <td> #</td> <td> three</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘɤk</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> free, independent; (physically) loose </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘɤka</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> free; loosen</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘɤml</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> slow; a river</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘpɤpat</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> loincloth [‘that of the leg’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘɯm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> mouth</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘɯt</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> subdue, (middle) abase oneself, bow down </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘɯtl</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> subdued; abased, humble, poor</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘʇɤi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> mine, dig, excavation [‘that of mining’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʘǁ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> bitter, sour</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇ</b> </td> <td> p</td> <td> son or daughter of</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇ-</b> </td> <td> pfx</td> <td> member, individual with a characteristic [‘child’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> shape, form; create (as a god)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇah</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> shape, form; creation</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇak</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> a river valley, south of Šɤ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇala</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> homosexual [Bh caura]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> tæh</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> husk, peel </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇæk</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> peel, dehusk; strip (clothes); (middle) be naked</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇækl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> peeled, dehusked; nude, naked</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇbedɯr</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Verdurian</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇbɯha</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> moon [‘child of night’]
<br/> <i>An ʇbɯha</i> Iliažë, the larger moon [‘Lady Moon’]
<br/> <i>ʘai ʇbɯha</i> Iliacáš, the medium moon [‘Lord Moon’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇbɯhaih</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Naunai, the smallest moon [‘small moon’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇe</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> priest, priestess [‘child of temple’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇeš </b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> destroy, break</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇeʇ</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> noisy</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇeʇa</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> be noisy, make a ruckus</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇfæm</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> seer, oracle, prophet [‘child of godling’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇiʇi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> child</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇlik</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> Črek, a nation and people north of Šɯʇ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇnam</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> courtier, member of the court</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇnaǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> resident of a city; citizen, townsman</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇɤh</b> </td> <td> v, n</td> <td> cough</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇpily</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> subject of the queen, inhabitant of (greater) Šɯʇ [‘child of queen’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇsǁ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the masses, the commoners [‘people who say ssǁ’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇšɤ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> inhabitant of the Šɤ valley</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇɤi</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> scratch; dig, mine</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇɤmi</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> cousin (daughter of ɤmi); the daughter of any (ʇ)ɤmi</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇɯny</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> pot</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇʇ</b> </td> <td> v, n</td> <td> rain</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ʇʇlik</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> someone from Črek</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁ</b> </td> <td> afx</td> <td> negative; standalone word don’t! no!</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁat</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> kill; middle die</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁe</b> </td> <td> v</td> <td> command, order</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁek</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> loud</td> <td> </td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁika</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> sea, ocean; the east; second queen of Šɯʇ</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁikal</b> </td> <td> a</td> <td> eastern</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁikam</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> the Ocean surrounding the world</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁim</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> dung, feces, shit</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁit</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> heart; (metaphorically) vigor, guts; insides</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁitl</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> vigorous; a chief of ʇak [‘heartful’]</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁɤ</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> river valley</td> </tr>
<tr> <td> <b> ǁɯly</b> </td> <td> n</td> <td> vulva, vagina [related to ‘valley’]</td> </tr>
</table> </blockquote>
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