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<h2>Lé (Létɔ̂ŋ)</h2>
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<hr/>
<p><a href="#Phonology">Phonology</a> — <i> <a href="#Consonants">Consonants</a> — <a href="#Vowels">Vowels</a> — <a href="#Tone">Tone</a> — <a href="#Phonotactics">Phonotactics</a> — <a href="#Stress">Stress</a>
</i>
<p><a href="#Compounds">Compounds</a><i> — <a href="#Nominal">Nominal derivations</a> — <a href="#Adjectival">Adjectival derivations</a> — <a href="#Verbald">Verbal derivations</a> </i>
<br><a href="#Pronouns">Pronouns</a><i> — <a href="#personal">Personal pronouns</a> — <a href="#Honorifics">Honorifics</a> — <a href="#Omitting">Omitting pronouns</a> </i>
<br><a href="#NP">The noun phrase</a><i> — <a href="#Demonstratives">Demonstratives</a> — <a href="#Quantifiers">Quantifiers </a> — <a href="#Numbers">Numbers</a> </i>
<br><a href="#Basic">Basic sentence structure</a><i> — <a href="#Othercase">Other case markers</a> — <a href="#mo">The mô construction</a> </i>
<br><a href="#Timeslot">The time slot</a><i> — <a href="#Timeclit">Time clitics</a> — <a href="#Indefinite">Indefinite time pronouns</a> — <a href="#TimeNPs">Time NPs</a> — <a href="#TimeClauses">Time clauses</a> </i>
<br><a href="#Place">The place slot</a><i> — <a href="#Placeclitics">Place clitics</a> — <a href="#Plexpress">Place expressions</a> — <a href="#Postpositions">Postpositions</a> — <a href="#Placeclauses">Place clauses</a> </i>
<br><a href="#Imperatives">Imperatives</a>
<br><a href="#Questions">Questions</a><i> — <a href="#Yesno">Yes-no questions</a> — <a href="#otherinterrogatives">Other interrogatives</a> </i>
<br><a href="#Negatives">Negatives</a>
<br><a href="#Subordination">Subordination</a>
<br><a href="#Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a>
<br><a href="#Adjectives">Adjectives and modals</a><i> — <a href="#adverbs">Verbal modifiers</a> — <a href="#Modal">Modal adjectives</a> — <a href="#if">If clauses</a> — <a href="#Comparatives">Comparatives</a> </i>
<br><a href="#fields">Semantic fields</a><i> — <a href="#Greetings">Greetings and closings</a> — <a href="#polite">Other polite expressions</a> — <a href="#Pragmatic">Pragmatic markers</a> — <a href="#day">The day</a> — <a href="#larger">Larger time periods</a> — <a href="#Family">Family</a> — <a href="#Names">Names</a> —
<a href="#Despectives">Despectives</a> —
<a href="#divine">Divinities</a> —
<a href="#Measurements">Measurements</a>
</i>
<p><a href="#Examples">Examples</a><i> — <a href="#prayer">A mother’s wedding prayer for her son</a> — <a href="#fighting">On fighting men</a> — <a href="#enlightenment">Seeking enlightenment</a> — <a href="#Nyekhen">The quotable Nyekhen</a> </i>
<p><a href="#Lexicon">Lexicon</a>
<hr>
<h3>Introduction</h3>
<b>Lé</b>, or more properly <b>Létɔ̂ŋ</b>, is the language of <b><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Belesao">Belesao</a></b>. The country is actually composed of three Beic ethnicities: the Nér in the east, the Lé along the coast, and the Pàn to their south, upriver. Even this picture is too neat; every large city is really the focus of a dialect, and these can quite successfully resist the three standards.
<img src="Be-map.jpg" align="right" title="Belesao">
<p>These are only some of the <b><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/B%C3%A9">Beic</a></b> languages, which extend from Pahsau in the west, through Łeisau, Hàɔráŋ and Mâɔráŋ, then Belesao, to ânhɛ̀ and Mɔłɔsou in the east. (In these words we see several cognates of the Lé word <b>sàɔ</b>‘country’.)
<ul>
<li>See also <A href="Le-spirituality.html">this page on Bé spirituality</A>.
<li>For pictures of Beic society, see the following portraits in the Almeopedia:
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/M%C3%BAr">Múr</a>, a Bé peasant
<li><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/T%C3%A2%C9%94n%C3%A0">Lady Tâɔnà</a>, a Mɔłɔ skeptic
<li><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/D%C7%8E%C9%94">Dâɔ</a>, lord of Nérsàɔ
<li><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/%C5%8A%C3%ADnt%C3%A0e">Ŋíntàe</a>, pirate empress
<li><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/F%C3%A1nao">Fánao</a> and <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/%C5%8Aar">Ŋar</a>
</ul>
<li>Also see the short story <a href="rogues.htm">“The Rogues“</a>.
</ul>
The largest Lé city is <b><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Jans%C9%9B%CC%80">Jansɛ̀</a></b>, the capital; but it’s only been the capital for four hundred years. Before then the center of power was a succession of cities, trending historically northward along the Lɛn. The earliest Bé civilization actually began in the Pàn area, in the city of Héjùs. Each of the successive capitals had an influence on the Lé language; besides Jansɛ̀ the most important dialect is that of the previous capital Kêkè. Some have described literary Létɔ̂ŋ as the language of Kêkè spoken with a Jansene accent. This may be accurate as regards literature per se, but the vocabulary of administration and commerce is largely Jansene.
<p>The language described in this sketch is the written standard, which is also used as a lingua franca for government, commerce, and science.
<p>The study of the dialects, and indeed the Beic languages, is impeded by the <b>writing system</b>, which was first devised in the 1800s under the Men’s Empire, adapted from the syllabographic <a href="Uyse7.htm">Uyseʔ</a> script. The glyphs were borrowed both phonetically and semantically, and the writing system does a fairly poor job of representing Lé phonology. This is an advantage to the Bé, since the system can be shared (with a huge caveat, below) by all Beic languages, but it’s an annoyance for the foreign linguist. Only Kebreni and Verdurian sources (supplemented by some vague Lé descriptions, and some evidence from rhymes) allow us to give the standard Jansene readings of the glyphs. In some cases we know readings in other dialects or languages and can guess at some of the sound changes, but this doesn’t extend to tone.
<p>The major caveat is that each major Beic nation has created its own version of the glyphs, and over the centuries these have drifted apart far enough that one nation can’t read another’s language without training. (The Minče nation of Rimasača has created yet another variant, this one a syllabary.) This is in line with Beic cultural norms, which recognize a common cultural heritage but do not exclude strong national identities. By contrast the Uyseʔic peoples have much more of a feeling that they are a single ethnicity divided into multiple political units (with the corollary that the recognized center of culture is Uytai).
<p><img src="letong.gif" align="left">
The glyphs at <b>left</b> are read, right to left, <b>Létɔ̂ŋ</b>. The Lé writing system is an adaptation of <a href="#Uyse7-Logograms.pdf">Uyseʔ logographs</a>. <b>Lé</b> was borrowed phonetically, from the word <i>leʔ</i>‘beetle’; the glyph is a stylized representation of a beetle. <b>Tɔ̂ŋ</b> was borrowed semantically, from the word <i>seʔ</i> ‘speech’; the moustache-looking grapheme below it is a diacritic, a picture of a tooth, that indicates that the word begins with <b>t</b> (without it the glyph is used for the word <b>se</b>, a subordinator).
<img src="letong2.gif" align="right">
<p>For comparison, the same glyphs are given at <b>right</b> in Uyseʔ form; these are pronounced <i>Leyseʔ</i>.
<h3><a name="Phonology">Phonology</a></h3>
<h4><a name="Consonants">Consonants</a></h4>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2"><td></td>
<td><i>labial</i></td>
<td><i>dental</i></td>
<td><i>alveolar</i></td>
<td><i>velar</i></td>
<td><i>glottal</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>stops</i></td>
<td><b>p <br>b</b></td>
<td><b>t <br>d</b></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>k</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>affricates</i></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>č <br>j</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>fricatives</i></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>s</b></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>h</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>liquids</i></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>l <br>ł</b></td>
<td><b>r</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>nasals</i></td>
<td><b>m</b></td>
<td><b>n</b></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>ŋ</b></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
There’s no g; it’s likely that <b>h</b> derives from an earlier *g.
<p>Lé has early voice-onset time— <b>b</b> and <b>d</b> are strongly voiced, as in French.
<p>Make sure your dentals are really dental, not alveolar as in English. However, <b>č</b> and <b>j</b> have their point of articulation farther back, very much like the English sounds.
<p>A telltale of lower-class Jansene speech is [x] for <b>h</b>. In compensation the upper class pronounces their <b>h</b>’s lightly and may even drop them. Upriver it’s a simple [h].
<p><b>ł</b> is an affricate lateral— i.e. start with the tongue held for [t] and release into a lateral [l] rather than a fricative [š] as in <b>č</b>. The standard language distinguishes [ł] and [tl]— the former is more explosive— but some dialects merge them. If <b>tl</b> is intervocalic, the syllable division is between the consonants.
<p>In Jansɛ̀, <b>r</b> is retroflex, rather like American <i>r</i>; upriver it’s an approximant, more like British <i>r</i>. Don’t pronounce it as a tap. Make sure you distinguish <b>e</b> and <b>ɛ</b> (and also <b>o</b> and <b>ɔ</b>) before an <b>r</b>.
<h4><a name="Vowels">Vowels</a></h4>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2">
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td><i>front</i></td>
<td><i>mid</i></td>
<td><i>back</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>high</i></td>
<td> </td>
<td><b>i</b></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>u</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>mid-high</i></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>e</b></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>o</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>mid-low</i></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>ɛ</b></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>ɔ</b></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2"><i>low</i></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>a</b></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
English speakers should be careful not to lax their <b>ɛ</b> or <b>u</b>, nor to diphthongize <b>e</b> or <b>o</b>, while those who suffer from the <i>cot/caught</i> merger should clearly distinguish <b>ɔ</b> and <b>a</b>.
<p>Unstressed, low tone final -<b>e</b>, as in the clitics <b>re</b> and <b>je</b>, is often laxed, but to [ɪ] not [ɛ].
<p>Especially in Jansɛ̀, there’s a tendency to nasalize vowels before <b>n </b>or <b>ŋ</b>: <b>Pàn</b> [pãn52]. This may even contaminate later vowels in the word; <b>Jansɛ̀</b> itself is often pronounced [dʒã22 sɛ̃52].
<p>In words ending in -<b>r</b> the vowel + <b>r</b> acts as a diphthong— there’s a smooth transition from the vowel to the <b>r</b>.
<h4><a name="Tone">Tone</a></h4>
There are five <b>tones</b>, transliterated <b>a á à â ǎ</b>; the base contours in Jansɛ̀ are 22 24 52 453 213. These vary spectacularly by region even within Lé.
<center><a href="letones.wav"><img src="letones.gif" title="Tone contours"></a></center>
<p>(If you’re new to tones, these specifications are a five-point scale, from 1 = low to 5 = high; 3 is the pitch of your natural speaking voice. Click the diagram to hear the tones.)
<p>These are modified by <b>tone sandhi</b>, which applies across word boundaries but not breath groups:
<blockquote>
<b>áá </b>= 24 34
<br><b>àà</b> = 52 32
<br><b>ââ </b>= 453 44<br><b>ǎǎ</b>= 213 22
</blockquote>
First tone is modified after certain of the other tones; this is particularly noticeable with <b>clitics</b>, which are always first tone.
<blockquote>
<b>aa</b>= 22 33
<br><b>áa</b> = 24 22
<br><b>àa</b> = 52 33
<br><b>âa</b> = 453 44
<br><b>ǎa</b> = 21 44
</blockquote>
In addition, the first syllable in an utterance is likely to be higher by a step (e.g. <b>á</b> = 35)— except for commands and dispreferrred responses, where it will be lower (<b>á </b>= 13).
<p>Tone is relative to a speaker’s usual <b>pitch</b>, of course, and to the overall intonation of the sentence, which tends to fall for statements, rise for questions.
<p>Low pitch seems to be associated with an attitude of superiority. Overall, women, especially those in authority, tend to cultivate a low voice, while men speak above their natural pitch. Women speaking to men are observed to speak lower yet, and men speaking to women raise their pitch— a very chastened male will speak in a falsetto. (All these behaviors tend to disturb visitors from Eretald.)
<p>Another sound sample:
<blockquote><a href="ispae.wav">
<b>ís łɛ́ŋ tlu Kɛbrì na dɔ̀n jɔhù hibo re kle.</b>
<br><i>If you love Kebri so much, you should marry it.</a></i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h4>
A syllable has the form
<blockquote>(C)(r, l)V(V(r), ŋ, n, s).</blockquote>
(r, l) can only occur after stops, with the exception that <b>sl-</b> is allowed. (It’s been theorized that <b>ł</b> derives from earlier <i>*hl</i>, and even earlier <i>*gl</i>.)
<p>The only allowed diphthongs are <b>aɔ</b> and <b>ae</b>. As indicated, the offglides are lowered compared to our [au] and [ai]. (This is a characteristic feature of Lé and Pàn as opposed to the other Beic languages; compare the words <i>Maume, Mɔłɔsɔu</i>.)
<p>In the few cases where consonants appear twice in a row (e.g. <b>ŋánnèn</b>), they must be pronounced doubled.
<h4><a name="Stress">Stress</a></h4>
As Lé is isolating, stress is not so much a property of words but of breath groups. There is a tendency to stress and draw out the last word in a breath group— excluding clitics. Thus <b>Bélé<u>sààɔ</u></b>‘Belesao’, <b>Bélé<u>sààɔ</u> nɔ</b>‘in Belesao’. (“Stress“ here means increase in volume, not pitch.)
<p>Due to the structure of Lé, breath groups often correspond to constituents and end in a clitic. For instance:
<blockquote>
<b>Insòŋ <u>čus</u> <font color="#0000ff">|</font> <u>pràɔ</u> krɔ <font color="#0000ff">|</font> <u>krǎl</u> čor łu.
<br></b>archer shoot <font color="#0000ff">|</font> arrow INSTR <font color="#0000ff">|</font> practice PURP PAST
<br><i>The archer shot the arrow for practice.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Compounds">Compounds</a></h3>
There is no inflectional morphology at all, but compounds can be formed. Here are some of the common patterns.
<h4><a name="Nominal">Nominal derivations</a></h4>
Verbs may be <b>used as nouns</b> (if you like, nominalization via the null morpheme), especially for abstractions:
<blockquote><b>tǎn</b> know; knowledge
<br><b>nù</b> love
<br><b>dá</b> like; enjoyment
</blockquote>
An associated object or substance is often formed by adding a <b>classificatory root</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>sì</b> urinate +‘water’ → <b>sìłǎ</b> urine
<br><b>jîr</b> ask +‘word’ → <b>jîrdǐŋ</b> question
<br><b>nîn</b> produce +‘goods’ → <b>nînhé</b> produce, production
<br><b>rɛ̀</b> fight +‘season’ → <b>r<b>ɛ̀sčìŋ</b> </b>war
</blockquote>
In some cases the name of a plant has been turned into an adjective, and this process used to rename the plant:
<blockquote>
<b>trǒ</b> sourfruit → sour; +‘fruit’ → <b>trǒnɔ̌</b> sourfruit
<br><b>joŋ</b> sugarcane → sweet; +‘reed’ → <b>joŋhì</b> sugarcane
</blockquote>
<b>in</b> - member of, person who (prefix):
<blockquote>
<b>łó</b> study → <b>inłó</b> student
<br><b>jǔŋ </b>gang → <b>injǔŋ</b> gangster
<br><b>sòŋké</b> bow women in army → <b>insòŋ</b> archer
</blockquote>
<b>tló</b> - boss, chief:
<blockquote>
<b>rǎe</b> administer → <b>rǎetló</b> administrator
<br><b>sɛ̀</b> city → <b>sɛ̀tló</b> mayor
</blockquote>
<b>lɔ</b> - inhabitant (female or unmarked):
<blockquote>
<b>Jansɛ̀lɔ</b> woman from Jansɛ̀
<br><b>Kɛbrìlɔ</b> Kebreni woman
<br><b>Kúŋlɔ</b> Uytainese woman
</blockquote>
Don’t add <b>lɔ</b> to Bé ethnic names:
<blockquote>
<b>Lé</b>‘a Lé woman’
</blockquote>
<b>tɛ</b> - male partner or consort; male animal; male inhabitant
<blockquote>
<b>Létɛ</b> male Lé
<br><b>háɔ</b> elder → <b>háɔtɛ</b> elder’s husband
<br><b>tràŋ</b> queen → <b>tràŋtɛ</b> queen’s consort
<br><b>baɔ</b> dog → <b>baɔtɛ</b> male dog
<br><b>Jansɛ̀tɛ</b> man from Jansɛ̀
<br><b>Kɛbrìtɛ</b> Kebreni man
</blockquote>
<b>nèn</b> - building, place:
<blockquote>
<b>łó</b> study → <b>łónèn</b> school
<br><b>hé</b> goods → <b>hénèn</b> warehouse
<br><b>ŋán </b>boat → <b>ŋánnèn </b>wharf, pier<b>
</blockquote>
jùs</b> - place devoted to an activity:
<blockquote>
<b>kràɔ</b> salt → <b>kràɔjùs</b> salt flat
<br><b>jî</b> swim → <b>jîjùs</b> swimming pool<b>
</blockquote>
sàɔ</b> - country:
<blockquote>
<b>Nér</b> an ethnic group → <b>Nérsàɔ</b> their land<b>
</blockquote>
łó</b> - domain of study, school of thought
<blockquote>
<b>hǎe</b> mind → <b>Hǎełó</b> rationalist school
<br><b>kùr</b> steer → <b>kùrłó</b> navigation
<br><b>brɛ̌ŋ</b> machine → <b>brɛ̌ŋłó</b> engineering
</blockquote>
-<b>r</b>, which eats the final consonant of a word, forms a diminutive:
<blockquote>
<b>kɛ̂ŋ</b> older sister → <b>kɛ̂r</b> big sis
<br><b>bǎ</b> mother → <b>bǎr</b> mommy
<br><b>baɔ</b> dog → <b>baɔr</b> doggie
<br><b>čó</b> house → <b>čór</b> hut
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Adjectival">Adjectival derivations</a></h4>
<b>je</b> (the genitive particle) forms adjectives:
<blockquote>
<b>sɛ̀</b> </b>city → <b>sɛ̀je</b> urban
<br><b>dòŋǎ</b> the visible world → <b>dòŋǎje</b> earthly, mortal
<br><b>tlìn</b> rule → <b>tlìnje</b> administrative
<br><b>Kɛbrì</b> Kebri → <b>Kɛbrìje</b> Kebreni
<br><b>kɛs</b> outside → <b>kɛsje </b>outer
</blockquote>
<b>-r </b>softens the meaning of an adjective:
<blockquote>
<b>màɔ</b> old → <b>màɔr</b> getting on in years
<br><b>čǐ</b> fat → <b>čǐr</b> chubby
<br><b>kroŋ </b>stupid → <b>kror </b>dim<b>
</blockquote>
dɛ </b>negates an adjective:
<blockquote>
<b>dì</b> wise → <b>dìdɛ</b> unwise
<br><b>hàr</b> just → <b>hàrdɛ</b> unjust
<br><b>sòŋ</b> far → <b>sòŋdɛ</b> not far<b>
</blockquote>
Reduplication</b> intensifies an adjective’s meaning—it’s that and more so:
<blockquote>
<b>brɛ́</b> canny → <b>brɛ́brɛ́</b> sharp as a knife, ultra-smart
<br><b>dlin</b> crowded → <b>dlindlin</b> packed, crammed full
<br><b>pé</b> crazy → <b>pépé</b> batshit insane
</blockquote>
Note that reduplication always triggers tone sandhi.
<p><b>łu</b>— etymologically the same as the past tense morpheme though it has a separate glyph— is similar to our past participle (but should be used as a modifier, not a substantive):
<blockquote>
<b>čo</b> sink → <b>čołu</b> sunken
<br><b>dò</b> die → <b>dòłu</b> dead
<br><b>krò </b>finish → <b>kròłu</b> finished, done
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Verbald">Verbal derivations</a></h4>
<b>jâɔ</b> - verbalizer (with a nominal object)
<blockquote>
<b>nù</b> love → <b>jâɔ nù</b> <b>na</b> make love
<br><b>slɛ </b>fool → <b>jâɔ slɛ na </b>play the fool
<br><b>hôŋhàɔ </b>parrot → <b>jâɔ hôŋhàɔ na </b>babble, prattle
</blockquote>
<b>hùn</b> - reflexive action:
<blockquote>
<b>sǎɔs </b>clean → <b>hùnsǎɔs </b>clean oneself
<br><b>brù </b>kill → <b>hùnbrù</b> kill oneself
</blockquote>
<b>Reduplication</b> suggests emphasis, extra intensity or care, loudness, or finality:
<blockquote>
<b>sɔ</b> eat → <b>sɔsɔ</b> wolf down, eat like a pig
<br><b>tlɛ̂ŋ </b>flap → <b>tlɛ̂ŋtlɛ̂ŋ</b> keep flapping
<br><b>čo</b> sink → <b>čočo</b> sink down forever
<br><b>ruŋ</b> buzz → <b>ruŋruŋ</b> buzz loudly and annoyingly
<br><b>nɛ̂</b> </b>fear → <b>nɛ̂nɛ̂</b> be scared shitless
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Pronouns">Pronouns</a></h3>
<h4><A name="personal">Personal pronouns</a></h4>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2">
<td colspan=2><i>singular</i></td>
<td colspan=2><i>dual</i></td>
<td colspan=2><i>paucal</i></td>
<td colspan=2><i>plural</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>trǎɔ</b></td>
<td>I</td>
<td><b>jàɔ</b></td>
<td>we two</td>
<td><b>dràɔ</b></td>
<td>we few</td>
<td><b>rur</b></td>
<td>we all</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ís</b></td>
<td>you</td>
<td><b>jís</b></td>
<td>you two</td>
<td><b>drìs</b></td>
<td>you few</td>
<td><b>łís</b></td>
<td>you all</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>éŋ</b></td>
<td>she</td>
<td><b>jéŋ</b></td>
<td>those two</td>
<td><b>drèŋ</b></td>
<td>those few</td>
<td><b>łéŋ</b></td>
<td>they</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pô</b></td>
<td>he</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Pronouns are divided by person and by number. <i>Dual</i> applies to two persons, <i>paucal </i>to a few (two to four or so), <i>plural </i>to more than that. The non-singular forms derive from fusion with a lost preposed particle, with the exception of <b>rur</b>‘we all’.
<p>In the 3s only, sex is distinguished. The non-singular forms can refer to any sex. <b>éŋ</b> and <b>pô</b> are reserved for animate beings; inanimates use the demonstratives. The unmarked form is the feminine— if the sex of an animal or person is not known, use <b>éŋ</b>.
<p>Pronouns are used with case markers:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Lɔ</font> rɛn <font color="#008000">tràɔ na </font><font color="#ff0000">łís re</font> łu.
<br></b>woman follow I OBJ you.all DAT PAST
<br><i>The woman followed me on behalf of you all.</i>
</blockquote>
The genitive is formed with the usual <b>je</b> clitic, but there are suppletive forms for the singular pronouns. These are fused abbreviations: <b>trǎɔ je → tras</b>.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>tras</b></td>
<td>my</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>is</b></td>
<td>your</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>es</b></td>
<td>her</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pos</b></td>
<td>his</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Honorifics">Honorifics</a></h4>
<b>Honorifics</b> are added after names, titles, and personal pronouns when they refer to superiors. The honorific is never added to <b>trǎɔ</b>.
<br>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>îr</b></td>
<td>ordinary</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>àn</b></td>
<td>noble</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nàɔ</b></td>
<td>royal</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b>àr <font color="#0000ff">ís àn </font>ŋɛ̀ pláe na má?</b>
<br>Q you HON want soup Q
<br><i>Does your excellency want soup?</i>
</blockquote>
Deities, members of the Béjan, certain religious figures, and foreign ambassadors are entitled to the noble honorific. However, political officials, military officers, and heads of enterprises only get <b>îr </b>(unless of course they are noble or royal).
<p>Equals never use honorifics speaking to each other— that is, they are not markers of formality (like <i>vous</i> or <i>Usted</i>), but of respect due a superior.
<p>Within a (non-noble) family, older generations, male and female, should be addressed with <b>îr</b>. In rural areas, and among nobles, husbands address wives with <b>îr</b>.
<p>The archaic tradition was for women to use the honorific when addressing older female family members of the same age cohort (sisters and cousins), and men when addressing females (except those of a lower class). Some sources still depict peasants talking this way, but this is only a literary convention.
<p>Lé does not have a tradition of replacing pronouns with titles or phrases (‘your honor’,‘your grace’,‘your majesty’); <b>ís nàɔ</b> is all you need to address the queen.
<p>One never applies an honorific to oneself— except for queens speaking formally, who use <b>nàɔ</b> (not <i>*trâɔ nàɔ</i>) as the 1s pronoun.
<h4><a name="Omitting">Omitting pronouns</a></h4>
Pronouns are optional, and can be omitted if they’re obvious from the context. However, pronouns-with-honorifics are not. This creates a pattern where in a conversation between an inferior and a superior— a boss and employee, a matriarch and a younger relative, a parent and child— both parties refer to the superior with pronouns, to the the inferior without.
<blockquote>
<b>àr nù <font color="#0000ff">trǎɔ</font> na má?</b>
<br>Q love I OBJ Q
<br><i>Do you love me? (Superior to inferior)</i>
<p><b>Nù<font color="#0000ff"> ís îr</font> na.</b>
<br>love you HON OBJ
<br><i>Yes, I love you. (Inferior to superior)</i>
</blockquote>
For clarity, most of the sample sentences in this grammatical sketch include pronouns, but not honorifics. They would thus sound a bit off (though not actually wrong) to Lé ears. The Examples section is more characteristic of actual pronoun usage.
<p>There is no impersonal pronoun, though omitting the pronoun may have the same effect: <b>Tɔ̌ŋ hina</b>,‘They say so’. For clarity one may supply <b>tlɔrlɔ</b>‘most people’.
<h3><a name="NP">The noun phrase</a></h3>
Order within an NP is as follows:
<blockquote><i> demonstrative number single-attribute noun quantifier multiple-attribute</i>
</blockquote>
The <i><font color="#008000">single-attribute</i></font> slot can be filled with either an adjective or a postpositional phrase which does not itself contain modifiers.
<br>Examples:
<br>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>ŋɛs dlǐ </b></td>
<td><i>this bird</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>jû dlǐ</b></td>
<td><i>one bird</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>his jû <font color="#008000">jɔ̀ŋ</font> dlǐ</b></td>
<td><i>that one smart bird</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b><font color="#008000">jɔ̀ŋ</font> dlǐ júŋ </b></td>
<td><i>some smart birds</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b><font color="#008000">sâr je</font> dlǐ júŋ </b></td>
<td><i>some birds of the night </i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ŋɛs dlǐ č<b>ɛ̀ŋ </b></td>
<td><i>all these birds</i></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
The <i>multiple-attribute</i> slot can include multiple adjectives, multiple postpositional phrases, or complex postpositional phrases.
<br>
<blockquote>
<b>dlǐ <font color="#0000ff">jɔ̀ŋ as míŋ</font></b>
<br>bird smart and brilliant
<br><i>the smart and brightly colored bird</i>
<p><b>pɛčó <font color="#0000ff">pùŋ héŋ sɛ̀ nɔ</font></b>
<br>temple river by city in
<br><i>The temple in the city by the river</i>
<p><b>pɛčó <font color="#0000ff"> lùná je sɛ̀ júŋ nɔ</font></b>
<br>temple east of city some in
<br><i>the temple in some eastern city</i>
</blockquote>
There are no morphological plurals; all the words and examples discussed here may refer to one or more things. Explicit quantifiers or numerals must be used to specify number.
<p>As we’ll see, subordinate clauses follow the noun, but in fact syntactically they’re not part of the NP at all— they form a separate consituent following the NP-plus-case-marker constituent.
<h4><a name="Demonstratives">Demonstratives</a></h4>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>ŋɛs</b></td>
<td>this</td>
<td><b>ŋɛr</b></td>
<td>this person</td>
<td><b>ŋɛpo</b></td>
<td>this thing</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>his</b></td>
<td>that</td>
<td><b>hir</b></td>
<td>that person</td>
<td><b>hibo</b></td>
<td>that thing</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
The first column is used to modify an NP (e.g. <b><font color="#0000ff">ŋ</b></font><b><font color="#0000ff">ɛ</b></font><b><font color="#0000ff">s</b></font><b> lɔ</b>‘this woman’).
<p>The other words serve as entire NPs: <b><font color="#0000ff">Ŋɛr</font> dá <font color="#0000ff">hibo</font> na</b>‘This person likes that thing.’ <b>Ŋɛpo </b>and <b>hibo</b> serve as third person pronouns for inanimates.
<p>There are no articles.
<h4><a name="Quantifiers">Quantifiers </a></h4>
Quantifiers include the following.
<br>
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>mán</b></td>
<td>no, not any</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>júŋ</b></td>
<td>some, a few</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tle</b></td>
<td>many</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tlɔr</b></td>
<td>most</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>čɛ̀ŋ</b></td>
<td>all, every</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kis</b></td>
<td>other</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
These normally follow the noun, but if they are the only modifier they may precede it: cf. <b>dlǐ <font color="#0000ff">čɛ̀ŋ</font></b>
or <b><font color="#0000ff">čɛ̀ŋ</font> dlǐ</b>‘all birds’,
but <b>ŋɛs dlǐ <font color="#0000ff">čɛ̀ŋ</font></b>‘all these birds’.
<p>There’s no word for‘both’, but one can say e.g. <b>rò dlǐ <font color="#0000ff">čɛ̀ŋ</font></b>, literally‘all two birds’.
<p>Quantifiers can only used to modify an NP. To serve as an entire NP, the <b>indefinite pronouns</b> are used:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>mánlɔ</b></td>
<td>no one</td>
<td><b>mánbo</b></td>
<td>nothing</td>
<td><b>mánnɛ</b></td>
<td>never</td>
<td><b>mánnèn</b></td>
<td>nowhere</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>júŋlɔ</b></td>
<td>someone</td>
<td><b>júŋbo</b></td>
<td>something</td>
<td><b>júŋnɛ</b></td>
<td>sometimes</td>
<td><b>júŋnèn</b></td>
<td>somewhere</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tlelɔ</b></td>
<td>many people</td>
<td><b>tlebo</b></td>
<td>many things</td>
<td><b>tlenɛ</b></td>
<td>often</td>
<td><b>tlenèn</b></td>
<td>many places</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tlɔrlɔ</b></td>
<td>most people</td>
<td><b>tlɔrbo</b></td>
<td>most things</td>
<td><b>tlɔrnɛ</b></td>
<td>most times</td>
<td><b>tlɔrnèn</b></td>
<td>most places</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>čɛ̀ŋlɔ</b></td>
<td>everyone</td>
<td><b>čɛ̀ŋbo</b></td>
<td>everything</td>
<td><b>čɛ̀ŋnɛ</b></td>
<td>always</td>
<td><b>čɛ̀ŋnèn</b></td>
<td>everywhere</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kislɔ</b></td>
<td>another</td>
<td><b>kisbo</b></td>
<td>another</td>
<td><b>kisnɛ</b></td>
<td>another time</td>
<td><b>kisnèn</b></td>
<td>elsewhere</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
These are quite regular, and the system can be extended with more precise words— e.g. <b>mántɛ</b>‘no male’, <b>mándǐŋ</b>‘no word’ (e.g. “I said nothing“), <b>mánkí</b>‘no instant’, <b>mánčó</b>‘no house’ (“He’s nowhere in the village“). However, once you leave the set of vague common words, or add modifiers, the quantifier comes last: <b>drɔŋ mán</b>‘no sword’, <b>dì lɔ mán</b>‘no wise woman’.
<p>Sentences with any of the negative quantifiers or indefinite pronouns must be negated (with initial <b>dɛ́ŋ</b>).
<p> For related interrogatives, see <i>Questions</i> below.
<h4><a name="Numbers">Numbers</a></h4>
The Bé number system is octal; this comes from the distinctive Bé way of counting, using the fingers to count digits, and the thumbs to count eights.
<p>To count 1-8, you use the fingers, starting with the left little finger (indeed, the fingers are named <b>jûhɛ̌ŋ, ròhɛ̂ŋ</b>, etc., up to <b>rɔ̀rhɛ̂ŋ</b>, the right little finger). As a corollary, perhaps, Lé point with the left little finger.
<p>(The Lé would feel they understand Dr. Evil’s famous gesture. Pointing at your lip is the same as saying <b>Ŋɛsdǐŋ na tɔ̌ŋ</b>‘I say these words’, i.e.‘Believe it, lady.’)
<p>Then you repeat the process, varying the position of the thumbs, as follows. A blank cell indicates that the thumb is relaxed.
<br>
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2"><td></td>
<td><i>left thumb</i></td>
<td><i>right thumb</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">1-8</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">9-16</td>
<td>bent down</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">17-24</td>
<td>bent down</td>
<td>bent down</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">25-32</td>
<td></td>
<td>bent down</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">33-40</td>
<td>held against index finger</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">41-48</td>
<td>touch base of pinky</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">49-54</td>
<td>touch base of pinky</td>
<td>touch base of pinky</td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">55-64</td>
<td></td>
<td>touch base of pinky</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Note the thumb sequence 0 - L - LR - R. Among the Mɔłɔ it’s 0 - L - R - LR instead; the Mɔłɔ consider this more logical, but the other Bé find it awkward: their way requires only one thumb movement per octade.
<p>The Linaminče languages also have octal systems, as they learned counting from the Bé.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2"><td></td>
<td><i>x</i></td>
<td><i>8x</i></td>
<td><i>+x</i></td>
<td><i>8<sup>x</sup></i></td>
<td><i>1/x</i></td>
<td><i>xth</i></td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">1</td>
<td><b>jû</b></td>
<td>rɔ̀r</td>
<td>jûs</td>
<td>rɔ̀r</td>
<td></td>
<td>sé<b></td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">2</td>
<td><b>rò</b></td>
<td>krɛ̀</td>
<td>ròs</td>
<td>tlàn</td>
<td>čiŋ</td>
<td>láe</td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">3</td>
<td><b>jùr</b></td>
<td>súr</td>
<td>jùs</td>
<td>lón</td>
<td>jaŋ</td>
<td>jùrkɛ</td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">4</td>
<td><b>čɛr</b></td>
<td>jês</td>
<td>čɛs</td>
<td>łùr</td>
<td>bičɛr</td>
<td>čɛrkɛ</td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">5</td>
<td><b>bàɔ</b></td>
<td>hí</td>
<td>bàs</td>
<td>prûŋ</td>
<td>bibàɔ</td>
<td>bàɔkɛ</td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">6</td>
<td><b>bàr</b></td>
<td>čɛnɛ̀</td>
<td>bɔ̀s</td>
<td>rɔ̀rprûŋ</td>
<td>bibàr</td>
<td>bàrkɛ</td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">7</td>
<td><b>târ</b></td>
<td>bɛ̀nɛ̀</td>
<td>tâs</td>
<td>tlànprûŋ</td>
<td>bitâr</td>
<td>târkɛ</td>
</tr>
</b><tr><td bgcolor="#AC85B2">8</td>
<td><b>rɔ̀r</b></td>
<td>tlàn</td>
<td></td>
<td>lónprûŋ</td>
<td>brɔ̀r</td>
<td>rɔ̀rkɛ</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Note that there are special names for the <b>multiples of 8</b>; these mostly derive from the action of the thumbs— e.g. <b>krɛ̀</b> 20<font size=1>8</font> means‘the left thumb’.
<p>Numbers from 9-63 are named using the combining forms (the +x column), which derive from fusion of the numbers with <b>as</b>‘and’. Thus <b>jûs rɔ̀r</b> 11<font size=1>8</font> =9 , <b>čɛs súr</b> 34<font size=1>8</font> = 28, <b>tâs b<b>ɛ̀</b>n<b>ɛ̀</b> </b>77<font size=1>8</font> = 63.
<p><b>Multiples of 100</b><font size=1>8</font><b> </b>(64) are formed with the digit + <b>tàn</b>, a combining form of <b>tlàn</b>: thus <b>ròtàn</b> 200<font size=1>8</font> = 128, <b>bàɔtàn</b> 500<font size=1>8</font> = 320.
<p>These can be concatenated with the lower digits using <b>as</b>‘and’. Note that the digits appear in the opposite order as English:
<blockquote>
<b> jûs rɔ̀r as ròtàn </b>
<br>+1 eight and two-64
<br><i>211<font size=1>8</font> = 137</i>
<br><b>čɛs súr as bàɔtàn </b>
<br>+4 thirty<font size=1>8</font> and five-64
<br><i>534<font size=1>8</font> = 348</i>
<br><b>tâs bɛ̀nɛ̀ as bɛ̀nɛ̀tàn </b>
<br>+7 seventy<font size=1>8</font> and seven-64
<br><i>777<font size=1>8</font> = 511</i>
</blockquote>
<b>1000</b><font size=1>8</font> (<b>512</b>) is <b>lón</b> and works much like 64.
<blockquote>
<b>ròs hí as bàrtàn as jùrlón </b>
<br>+2 fifty<font size=1>8</font> and six-64 and three-512
<br><i>3652<font size=1>8</font> = 1962</i>
</blockquote>
<b>10,000</b><font size=1>8</font> (<b>4096</b>) is <b>łùr</b>, but five-digit numbers are counted by multiples of 512 instead. E.g. <b>čɛs súr lón </b>= 3400<font size=1>8 </font>= 14336.
<p><b>100,000</b><font size=1>8</font> (<b>32768</b>) is <b>prûŋ </b>and works much like <b>lón</b>.
<p>Scholars form higher numbers by multiplication: <b>rɔ̀rprûŋ</b> 8<font size=1><sup>6 </sup></font> = 262144; <b>tlànprûŋ</b> 8<font size=1><sup>7</sup></font> = 2,097,152; <b>lónprûŋ</b> 8<font size=1><sup>8</sup></font> = 16,777,216, <b>łùrprûŋ</b> 8<font size=1><sup>9</sup></font> = 134,217,728, and finally <b>prûŋprûŋ</b> 8<font size=1><sup>10</sup></font> = 1,073,741,824.
<p>Fractions and ordinals of larger numbers are formed by changing just the first number; e.g. <b>bičɛs súr</b> <b>as</b> <b>bàɔtàn</b> 1/534<font size=1>8</font>, <b>čɛskɛ súr</b> <b>as</b> <b>bàɔtàn</b> 534<font size=1>8</font>th. To form mixed fractions, combine the ordinal and fraction:
<blockquote>
<b>jùrkɛ bičɛr</b>
<br>three-ORD FRAC-four
<br><i>¾</i>
</blockquote>
This in turn can be concatenated with a whole number, again using <b>as</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>jùrkɛ bičɛr as târ</b>
<br>three-ORD FRAC-four and seven
<br><i>7 ¾</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Basic">Basic sentence structure</a></h3>
The basic sentence order of Lé is <font color="#0000ff">S</font>V<font color="#008000">O</font><font color="#0000ff">P</font><font color="#ff00ff">T</font>, where <font color="#0000ff">P</font> and <font color="#ff00ff">T</font> refer to place and time:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Lɔ</font> sɛ̌n <font color="#008000">júŋ sa na</font> <font color="#0000ff">krɛn</font> <font color="#ff00ff">łu</font>.</b>
<br>woman buy some wine OBJ here PAST
<br><i>The woman bought some wine here.</i>
</blockquote>
However, as the object is explicitly marked with the clitic <b>na</b>, word order is fairly free. <font color="#008000">O</font><font color="#0000ff">S</font>V is normally used for topicalization, while<font color="#008000"> O</font>V<font color="#0000ff">S</font> carries the pragmatic implicature that the subject is newly introduced. Note that this often corresponds to our use of the definite and indefinite article:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Júŋ sa na</font> <font color="#0000ff">lɔ</font> sɛ̌n łu.</b>
<br>some wine OBJ woman buy PAST (<font color="#008000">O</font><font color="#0000ff">S</font>V)
<br><i>Some wine was bought by the woman.</i>
<p><b><font color="#008000">Júŋ sa na</font> sɛ̌n <font color="#0000ff">lɔ</font> łu.</b>
<br>some wine OBJ buy woman PAST (<font color="#008000">O</font>V<font color="#0000ff">S</font>)
<br><i>Some wine was bought by a woman.</i>
</blockquote>
Lé avoids having a subject NP followed directly by another NP, so <font color="#0000ff">S</font><font color="#008000">O</font>V and V<font color="#0000ff">S</font><font color="#008000">O</font> are rarely seen.
<h4><a name="Othercase">Other case markers</a></h4>
<b>Na</b> is just one of a family of case markers, with similar syntactic behavior:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>mô</b></td>
<td>disposal (object; see below)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>la</b></td>
<td>causative</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td>(subject)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>na</b></td>
<td>accusative (object acted upon)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sɛs</b></td>
<td>ablative (source, origin) </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>re</b></td>
<td>dative (beneficiary, destination)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>krɔ</b></td>
<td>instrumental (tool)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bu</b></td>
<td>comitative (with); carrying</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>čor</b></td>
<td>purpose, intention</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>łin</b></td>
<td>like, in the way of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mɛ</b></td>
<td>about, as to, regarding</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ta</b></td>
<td>as, in a state of, while being</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
All the case markers are clitics, and thus trigger tone sandhi.
<p>Lé tends to be more consistent with cases than English.
<ul>
<li>The person you’re speaking to is always marked with <b>re</b>, though in English they might be the direct object (‘tell, address, harangue’) or the indirect object (‘speak to, talk to’).
<li>Movement verbs always mark the destination with <b>re</b>. In Lé you visit or reach‘to’ the city and you enter‘to’ a room.
<br>
</ul>
Unexpected case usages are marked in the lexicon.
<p>Multiple cases generally appear in the order given in the table:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Lɔ</font> sɛ̌n <font color="#008000">júŋ sa na</font> <font color="#ff0000">injǔŋ sɛs </font><font color="#7070ff">sáŋ re</font> łu.</b>
<br>woman buy some wine OBJ pirate ABL daughter DAT PAST
<br><i>The woman bought some wine from the pirates for her daughter.</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Insòŋ</font> čus <font color="#ff0000">pràɔ krɔ </font> <font color="#7070ff">krǎr čor </font>łu.</b>
<br>archer shoot arrow INSTR practice PURP PAST
<br><i>The archer shot the arrow for practice.</i>
</blockquote>
<b>Ta</b> is used to describe the subject’s state or status: <b>tlɛ́ ta</b>‘while naked’, <b>tràŋ ta</b>‘as queen’, <b>is inbràe ta</b>‘as your lawyer’.
<p>Any constituent can be <b>topicalized</b> by moving it before the verb, and marked as <b>new information</b> (or as an afterthought) by moving it ahead of its normal position.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#ff0000">Injǔŋ sɛs</font> sɛ̌n <font color="#008000">júŋ sa na</font> <font color="#0000ff">lɔ</font> łu.</b>
<br>pirate ABL buy some wine OBJ woman PAST
<br><i>As for the pirates, some wine was bought from them by a woman.</i>
</blockquote>
The causative normally occurs first, before the subject:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#ff00ff">Háɔ la</font> <font color="#0000ff">trâɔ</font> saɔr <font color="#008000">prołó na</font> łu.</b>
<br>matriarch CAUS I abandon accounting OBJ PAST
<br><i>The matriarch made me give up accountancy.</i>
</blockquote>
Sometimes Lé uses a causative where we’d use a different case analysis:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Papa</font> sǔs / <font color="#ff00ff">Lɔ la</font> <font color="#0000ff">papa</font> sǔs.</b>
<br>baby suck / woman CAUS baby suck
<br><i>The baby is nursing / The woman is nursing the baby </i>
</blockquote>
A <b>vocative</b> (which has no case marker) can be placed at the front of the sentence, or more rarely after it; the subject should always be explicitly stated.
<blockquote>
<b>Slɛ, dɛ́ŋ ís sɔ dà na.</b>
<br>idiot NEG you eat leaf OBJ
<br><i>You idiot, you don’t eat the leaf.</i>
</blockquote>
If the object is the same as the subject, the <b>reflexive</b> deverbal using <b>hùn-</b> must be used, rather than simply omitting the object as we can do in English: <b>éŋ</b> <b>hùnsǎɔs łu </b>‘she washed (herself)’.
<h4><a name="mo">The mô construction</a></h4>
<b>Mô</b> can be used in place of either <b>na</b> (direct object) or <b>re</b> (indirect object), but is always topicalized, and must always refer to something definite.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">Pàŋ mô </font><font color="#0000ff">trǎɔ</font> čun łu.</b>
<br>book OBJ I read PAST
<br><i>I read the book.</i>
<p><b><font color="#ff0000">Ŋúlɔ mô</font><font color="#008000"> </font><font color="#0000ff">éŋ</font> bre <font color="#008000">sò na</font> łu.</b>
<br>beggar OBJ she give money OBJ PAST
<br><i>She gave the money to the beggar.</i>
</blockquote>
Summarizing all uses of <b>mô</b> is difficult, but a good heuristic is that it implies <b>disposal</b>— the item is taken care of, disposed of. Thus the first example might be paraphrased “I’m done with that book“, the second as “She got rid of the beggar (by giving her money)“.
<br>This construction is also used where we might say “What I did to — was —.“ E.g.:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#008000">éŋ mô</font> pô sârjâ łu.</b>
<br>she OBJ he cheat PAST
<br><i>What he did to her was to cheat on her. </i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Timeslot">The time slot</a></h3>
A sentence may optionally contain a time indication at the end.
<h4><a name="Timeclit">Time clitics</a></h4>
The simplest of these is one of the <b>time clitics</b>:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>dɔr</b></td>
<td>earlier past</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>łu</b></td>
<td>past</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>klae</b></td>
<td>later on</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kɔr</b></td>
<td>just now</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mar</b></td>
<td>now</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>drae</b></td>
<td>in a moment, about to</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>trun</b></td>
<td>future</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
We’ve already met <b>łu</b> as the simple past tense. A narrative set in the past can use <b>dɔr</b> to refer to earlier times, similar to our past perfect or the Verdurian past anterior:
<blockquote>
<b>éŋ čun pàŋ na <font color="#0000ff">łu</font> rǐ trǎɔ pàŋ <font color="#0000ff">dɔr</font>.</b>
<br>she read book OBJ PAST because I read EARLIER.PAST
<br><i>She read the book because I’d read it first.</i>
</blockquote>
Similarly, <b>klae </b>is used to refer within a past narrative to later events which are still past. We sometimes use the conditional for this.
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ brâ drɔŋ na <font color="#0000ff">łu</font> rǐ trǎɔ hîr <font color="#0000ff">klae</font>.</b>
<br>I take sword OBJ PAST because I need LATER.ON
<br><i>I took the sword because I would need it (later).</i>
</blockquote>
All three past particles are found in the response of a ghost summoned by a Lé magician and asked about its life:
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ lù <font color="#0000ff">dɔr</font>, rɛ̀s <font color="#0000ff">łu</font>, dò <font color="#0000ff">klae</font>.</b>
<br>I be.born EARLIER.PAST fight PAST die LATER.ON
<br><i>I was born, I fought, I died.</i>
</blockquote>
Where the English translation compresses the events aphoristically, the effect of the Lé sentence is a breathless rush through time.
<p><b>Kɔr</b> expresses that an event just happened, <b>drae</b> that it’s just about to. These can be combined with the other clitics to refer to past or future time:
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ hù čó re <font color="#0000ff">łu</font>; éŋ čun pàŋ na <font color="#0000ff">kɔr</font> <font color="#0000ff">łu</font>.</b>
<br>I enter house DAT PAST / she read book OBJ JUST.NOW PAST
<br><i>I entered the house; she had just finished the book.</i>
</blockquote>
<b>Kɔr</b> is often used with a perfective sense: the action is done now, it’s taken care of. This is often emphasized with the <b>mô</b> construction:
<blockquote>
<b>Drɔŋ mô trǎɔ brâ kɔr.</b>
<br>sword OBJ I take JUST.NOW
<br><i>I’ve taken the sword.</i>
</blockquote>
If no time clitic is present, its assumed to be <b>mar </b>‘now’. Explicitly inserting <b>mar </b>is usually done to contrast with a different time. There isn’t a direct equivalent of‘then’ in the sense of‘at that time’; use the simple clitics instead.
<h4><a name="Indefinite">Indefinite time pronouns</a></h4>
The indefinite pronouns (and their variations) can also fill the time slot; they can also be restricted to a time period using the time clitics.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>mánnɛ</b></td>
<td>never</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>júŋnɛ</b></td>
<td>sometimes</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tlɔrnɛ</b></td>
<td>most times</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>č<b>ɛ̀</b>ŋnɛ</b></td>
<td>always</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b>Jansɛ̀ pâ dlindlin as prɛ́s <font color="#0000ff">čɛ̀ŋnɛ (łu)</font>.</b>
<br>Jansɛ̀ be busy-busy and malicious always (PAST)
<br><i>Jansɛ̀ is (was) always terribly busy and devious.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="TimeNPs">Time NPs</a></h4>
The time slot may also be filled with a NP referring to time, plus a clarifying clitic:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>krin</b></td>
<td>until, before</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ras</b></td>
<td>since, after</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tur</b></td>
<td>on (it happened sometime during this span)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>čɔŋ</b></td>
<td>during(it happened all through this span)</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b>Jǎɔ nù jâɔ na <font color="#0000ff">jɔ́rnɛ tur</font>.</b>
<br>we.two do love OBJ previous-day on
<br><i>We made love yesterday.</i>
<p><b>Jǎɔ nù jâɔ na <font color="#0000ff">jɔ́rnɛ čɔŋ.</font></b>
<br>we.two do love OBJ previous-day during
<br><i>We made love all day yesterday.</i>
<p><b>Trǎɔ jɛ̀s ís re <font color="#0000ff">łɛ̌n ras</font>.</b>
<br>I visit you.s DAT dinner since
<br><i>I’ll see you after dinner.</i>
<p><b>Dɛ́ŋ trǎɔ bùr sa na <font color="#0000ff">líŋnɛ krin</font>.</b>
<br>not I drink liquor OBJ holiday until
<br><i>I won’t drink liquor until the holidays.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="TimeClauses">Time clauses</a></h4>
An entire subclause can specify the time, followed by the subordinator <b>senɛ</b>, then one of the above time clitics:
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ tǎn inprãr na <font color="#0000ff">éŋ tɔ̌ŋ łu senɛ tur</font>.</b>
<br>I know culprit OBJ she speak PAST SUB during
<br><i><font color="#0000ff">When she spoke</font>, I knew the culprit.</i>
<p><b>Trǎɔ nù ís na <font color="#0000ff">mǐ is dlàɔ na łu senɛ ras</font>. </b>
<br>I love you OBJ see your face OBJ PAST SUB since
<br><i>I have loved you <font color="#0000ff">ever since I saw your face</font>.</i>
</blockquote>
The subclause <i>is</i> the time slot for the main clause; don’t add a second time clitic.
<p>A time clause, or a time NP, but not a single-word clitic, can be fronted to topicalize it:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Rɛ̀sčìŋ ras</font> dɛ́ŋ trǎɔ ŋír rà.</b>
<br>war since NEG I possible sleep
<br><i>Since the war I haven’t been able to sleep.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Place">The place slot</a></h3>
A sentence may optionally indicate location, just before the time slot. The place slot works much like the time slot.
<h4><a name="Placeclitics">Place clitics</a></h4>
There is only one place clitic, <b>krɛn</b>‘here’.
<blockquote>
<b>Tras tlɛ̀ lûr ŋǎɔ <font color="#0000ff">krɛn</font>.</b>
<br>my damn younger.sister infest here
<br><i>My goddamn sister is infesting this place.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Plexpress">Place expressions</a></h4>
An NP can be combined with the locative clitic <b>ro</b>, which can be glossed as‘in’,‘at’,‘on’,‘by’— whatever the most basic place relationship is with the given noun or pronoun.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>sɛ̀ ro</b></td>
<td>in the city</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>łas ro</b></td>
<td>on the ocean, at sea</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>trɔs ro</b></td>
<td>in the box</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nà ro</b></td>
<td>in one’s heart</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ís ro</b></td>
<td>by you, there</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Ŋar ro</b></td>
<td>by Ŋar, at Ŋar’s place</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Just as there’s no word for‘then’, there’s no word for‘there, in that place’. Instead you use explicit indications such as <b>ís ro </b>‘by you’, <b>čó ro</b>‘at the house’.
<h4><a name="Postpositions">Postpositions</a></h4>
More precise locatives are formed using postpositions:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>n<b>ɛ̀</b></b></td>
<td>across</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>héŋ</b></td>
<td>near (to)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sòŋ </b></td>
<td>far (from)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nɔ</b></td>
<td>in, inside</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kɛs</b></td>
<td>outside, out of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>jês</b></td>
<td>to the right of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kr<b>ɛ̀</b></b></td>
<td>to the left of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kɔ̀s </b></td>
<td>above, over, on</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tran</b></td>
<td>away from, against</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>din</b></td>
<td>between, amid, among</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>je</b></td>
<td>of</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nae</b></td>
<td>apart from, except, without</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<b>Ná</b>‘side, direction’ is a semi-productive means of forming even more postpositions:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>łasná</b></td>
<td>north of</td>
<td>‘sea side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>prɔ̌ná</b></td>
<td>south of</td>
<td>‘cold side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>lùná</b></td>
<td>east of</td>
<td>‘sunrise side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>dòná</b></td>
<td>west of </td>
<td>‘sunset side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bɔrná</b></td>
<td>under, below</td>
<td>‘bottom side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>jɔ̌sná</b></td>
<td>before</td>
<td>‘front side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>dlùnná</b></td>
<td>downriver</td>
<td>‘flow side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>nɔ̀rná</b></td>
<td>upriver</td>
<td>‘drag side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>s<b>ɛ̀ná</b></td>
<td>downtown</td>
<td>‘city side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sùŋná</b></td>
<td>downstairs, to the ground</td>
<td>‘ground side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ł<b>ɛ́sná</b></td>
<td>upstairs, upward</td>
<td>‘roof side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>krǎná</b></td>
<td>up (a tree)</td>
<td>‘branch side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>čóná</b></td>
<td>homeward</td>
<td>‘house side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>dlàɔná</b></td>
<td>facing</td>
<td>‘face side’</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>krɛnná</b></td>
<td>on this side</td>
<td>‘here side’</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Postpositional phrases can be used alone with <b>ro</b> to fill the place slot:
<br>
<blockquote>
<b>Ŋar łɔŋ <font color="#0000ff">nɔ̀rná ro</font> łu.</b>
<br>Ŋar go upriver LOC PAST
<br><i>Ŋar went upriver.</i>
</blockquote>
Or they can be appended to a noun phrase:
<blockquote>
<b>Ŋar hós sɛ̀ <font color="#0000ff">pùŋ nɛ̀</font> re łu.</b>
<br>Ŋar go.by.foot city river across to PAST
<br><i>Ŋar came to the city across the river.</i>
</blockquote>
Note that <b>ro</b> is omitted when it modifies an NP.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b><font color="#0000ff">čó jês</b></font><b> mîn</b></td>
<td><i>the tree to the left of the house</i></td>
</tr>
</i><tr><td><b><font color="#0000ff">Mɔ̀lɔ l</b></font><b><font color="#0000ff">ù</b></font><b><font color="#0000ff">ná</b></font><b> sàɔ</b></td>
<td><i>the country to the east of the Mɔłɔ</i></td>
</tr>
</i><tr><td><b><font color="#0000ff">sɛ̀ kɛs</b></font><b> pɛčó</b></td>
<td><i>the temple outside of town</i></td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<h4><a name="Placeclauses">Place clauses</a></h4>
An entire subclause can specify the location, followed by the subordinator <b>sero</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Jàɔ jǎɔ nù na <font color="#0000ff">ŋín hǎ sero</font> trun.</b>
<br>we.two do love OBJ ŋín bloom SUB FUT
<br><i>We will make love<font color="#0000ff"> where the ŋín flowers bloom.</font></i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Imperatives">Imperatives</a></h3>
The simplest imperative is a single verb: <b>saɔr</b>! ‘go away!’ <b>sɛ̌n</b>! ‘buy it!’
<p>Anything more complicated requires the imperative particle <b>kle</b>, which replaces the tense clitic. If no subject is provided, non-honorific‘you’ is assumed.
<blockquote>
<b>Dlɛ̌n hé na trǎɔ re <font color="#0000ff">kle</font>.</b>
<br>show goods OBJ me DAT IMPER
<br><i>Show me the goods.</i>
</blockquote>
A first or third person subject, or honorific‘you’, may be provided. This is not quite so peremptory— it’s more of a‘should’ than a‘must’.
<blockquote>
<b>Rur saɔr mǎslù ras <font color="#0000ff">kle</font>.</b>
<br>we.all leave sunrise before IMPER
<br><i>Let us away ere break of day.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Questions">Questions</a></h3>
<h4><a name="Yesno">Yes-no questions</a></h4>
The general formula for questions is to use the introductory particle <b>àr</b> and the final particle <b>má</b>:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">àr </font>trǔŋ lɔ lɔ̂n ís na <font color="#0000ff">má</font>?</b>
<br>Q bad woman hurt you OBJ Q
<br><i>Did the bad woman hurt you?</i>
</blockquote>
To reply in the affirmative repeat the verb— <b>Lɔ̂n </b>‘(Yes, she) hurt) me’— or more formally say something like <b>Hibo don</b>‘It’s certainly that’. To reply negatively say <b>Dɛ́ŋ</b> (‘No’), or <b>Dɛ́ŋ</b> <b>hibo don</b>‘It’s certainly not that’.
<p><b>Mǎr</b> instead of <b>má</b> adds a tentative or apologetic tone, something like our tag questions. It can be used without initial <b>àr</b>, making it suitable for turning a statement into a question partway through.
<blockquote>
<b>ís îr klùŋ trǎɔ na <font color="#0000ff">mǎr</font>?</b>
<br>you HON hate I OBJ Q
<br><i>You despise me, don’t you?</i>
</blockquote>
<b>Ŋé</b> can replace <b>má</b> to add an ironic or sarcastic air (all the more so if it’s drawn out).
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">àr </font>háɔ čàosí <font color="#0000ff">ŋé</font>?</b>
<br>Q matriarch menstruate Q
<br><i>Is the matriarch PMSing or what?</i>
</blockquote>
To question a particular element, add the clitic <b>te</b> after it, and omit <b>àr</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>Čǐ lɔ <font color="#0000ff">te</font> hɔ́r ŋɛs ŋódà na łu <font color="#0000ff">má</font>?</b>
<br>fat woman Q choose this roll-up OBJ PAST Q
<br><i>Was it the fat lady who ordered this sweet roll?</i>
<p><b>Čǐ lɔ hɔ́r ŋɛs ŋódà <font color="#0000ff">te</font> na łu <font color="#0000ff">má</font>?</b>
<br>fat woman choose this roll-up Q OBJ PAST Q
<br><i>Was it this sweet roll that the fat lady ordered?</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="otherinterrogatives">Other interrogatives</a></h4>
The interrogatives are formed with <b>b<b>ɛ́</b> </b>‘which’, itself an interrogative adjective. The queried element is usually fronted, and an interrogative clitic inserted at the end of the sentence.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>bɛ́</b></td>
<td>which</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bɛ́bo</b></td>
<td>what </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bɛ́lɔ</b></td>
<td>who</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bɛ́nɛ</b></td>
<td>when</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bɛ́nèn</b></td>
<td>where</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bɛ́ čor</b></td>
<td>why</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bɛ́ krɔ</b></td>
<td>how, using what</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>b<b>ɛ́</b>s</b></td>
<td>whose</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Bɛ́lɔ </font>jí bròs na tras čaelu ro łu <font color="#0000ff">má</font>?</b>
<br>who put lizard OBJ my tea at PAST Q
<br><i>Who put the lizard in my tea?</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Bɛ́bo na</font> ís sɔ kɔr <font color="#0000ff">má</font>?</b>
<br>what OBJ you eat JUST.NOW Q
<br><i>What did you just eat?</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Bɛ́ tɛr na</font> ís ŋɛ̀ <font color="#0000ff">má</font>?</b>
<br>which lad OBJ you want Q
<br><i>Which boy do you want?</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Bɛ́nèn čùŋké</font> hós łu <font color="#0000ff">mǎr</font>?</b>
<br>where artillery go past Q
<br><i>Um... the artillery went where?</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Bɛ́ krɔ</font> ís lús trǎɔ na łu <font color="#0000ff">ŋé</font>?</b>
<br>which INSTR you find I OBJ PAST Q
<br><i>However did you find me?</i>
</blockquote>
Any of the cases can be queried with <b>bɛ́</b>, on the model of <b>bɛ́ čor</b>‘for what = why’.
<h3><a name="Negatives">Negatives</a></h3>
To negate a sentence, add <b>dɛ́ŋ</b> at the front:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Dɛ́ŋ </font>rur tlɛ̌n na łu.</b>
<br>NEG we start fire OBJ PAST
<br><i>We didn’t start the fire.</i>
</blockquote>
A specific element is negated by adding the clitic <b>dɛ</b> (but <b>dɛ́ŋ</b> is still required):
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Dɛ́ŋ</font> éŋ ŋɛ̀ bǎɔsa <font color="#0000ff">dɛ</font> na.</b>
<br>NEG she want stripcorn.wine NOT OBJ
<br><i>It’s not wine that she wants.</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Dɛ́ŋ</font> éŋ <font color="#0000ff">dɛ</font> ŋɛ̀ bǎɔsa na.</b>
<br>NEG she NOT want stripcorn.wine OBJ
<br><i>It’s not her that wants wine.</i>
</blockquote>
(<b>Dɛ</b> is also used as a suffix to form negative adjectives; these don’t need <b>dɛ́ŋ</b>.)
<p>A negative question replaces initial <b>àr</b> with <b>dɛ́ŋ</b>:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Dɛ́ŋ</font> drìs klàɔ mán tlúr na <font color="#0000ff">má</font>?</b>
<br>NEG you.few display no banana OBJ Q
<br><i>You have no bananas?</i>
</blockquote>
Replies are the same as for affirmative questions— <b>klàɔ</b>‘we have them’ (but this may be drawn out in this case: <b>klàààɔ</b>), <b>dɛ́ŋ</b>‘we don’t have them’.
<h3><a name="Subordination">Subordination</a></h3>
Subordinate clauses are marked with the clitic <b>se</b>. The entire subclause follows the constituent it attaches to.
<br>
<ul>
<li>The subclause omits the subordinated element, leaving behind its case marker. (If there are multiple objects, the stranded case marker immediately follows the verb.)
<br><li>The subclause ends with <b>se</b>.
<br><li>The subordinate clause follows the entire NP (i.e. it appears after the final case marker if any).
<br><li>If the subordinate clause omits the tense slot, it’s assumed to be the same as the main clause (rather than‘now’ as in a main clause).
<br>
</ul>
Let’s look at a sample sentence—
<font color="#0000ff"><blockquote>
<b>Dǎr nù injǔŋ na łu.</b>
<br>girl love gangster OBJ PAST
<br><i>The girl loved a gangster.</i>
</blockquote></font>
and look at the four possible relativizations. The subclause is shown in blue, the main verb in red.
<p>S in subclause, S in main
<blockquote>
<b>Dǎr <font color="#0000ff">nù injǔŋ na (łu) se jɛ̀s </font>trǎɔ na łu.</b>
<br>girl <font color="#0000ff">love gangster OBJ PAST SUB</font> visit I OBJ PAST
<br><i>The girl <font color="#0000ff">who loved a gangster</font> visited me.</i>
</blockquote>
S in subclause, O in main
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ <font color="#ff0000">jɛ̀s </font>dǎr na <font color="#0000ff">nù injǔŋ na (łu) se </font>łu.</b>
<br>I visit girl OBJ<font color="#0000ff"> love gangster OBJ PAST SUB</font> PAST
<br><i>I visited the girl <font color="#0000ff">who loved a gangster</font></i>
</blockquote>
O in subclause, S in main (note the stranded <b>na</b>)
<blockquote>
<b>Injǔŋ <font color="#0000ff">dǎr nù na (łu) se jɛ̀s </font>trǎɔ na łu.</b>
<br>gangster <font color="#0000ff">girl love OBJ PAST SUB</font> visit I OBJ PAST
<br><i>The gangster <font color="#0000ff">who the girl loved</font> visited me.</i>
</blockquote>
O in subclause, O in main (again, with stranded <b>na</b>)
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ <font color="#ff0000">jɛ̀s </font>injǔŋ na <font color="#0000ff">dǎr nù na (łu) se </font>łu.</b>
<br>I visit gangster OBJ <font color="#0000ff">girl love OBJ PAST SUB</font> PAST
<br><i>I visited the gangster <font color="#0000ff">who the girl loved</font></i>
</blockquote>
As shown, <b>łu</b> is optional in the subclause, since it’s identical to the time slot in the main clause.
<p><b>Sentential arguments</b> use the special pronoun <b>hina</b> (= <b>his na</b>‘that OBJ’), which takes the place of the complement in the main sentence, allowing the complement to be placed either before or after it:
<blockquote>
<b>Pô tɔ̌ŋ hina łu, <font color="#0000ff">hà jû pɛ łɔ̌</font>.</b>
<br>he say SUB PAST / just one goddess exist
<br><i>He said there’s only one god.</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Hà jû pɛ łɔ̌</font>, pô tɔ̌ŋ hina łu.</b>
<br>just one goddess exist / he say SUB PAST
<br><i>There’s only one god, he said.</i>
<p><b>Trǎɔ drɔ̌n hina čɛ̀ŋnɛ, <font color="#0000ff">Kɛbrìtɛ ŋan plɔ̀r</font>.</b>
<br>I hold SUB always, Kebri-men habitually lie
<br><i>I have always maintained that the Kebreni are liars.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
There’s no grammatical difference between direct and indirect reported speech; it’s generally obvious from the pronouns, language, and tenses used:
<blockquote>
<b>Tras bǎ tɔ̌ŋ hina trǎɔ re łu, <font color="#0000ff">dɛ́ŋ trǎɔ jâɔ héŋnâr na tɛ mɛ.</font></b>
<br>my mother say SUB I DAT PAST / NEG I do attention OBJ males ABOUT
<br><i>My mother told me I was insufficiently careful with regards to men.</i>
<p><b>Tras bǎ tɔ̌ŋ hina trǎɔ re łu, <font color="#0000ff">ís pǎ tlɛ̀ dliŋlɔ.</font></b>
<br>my mother say SUB I DAT PAST / you be damn mud-woman
<br><i>My mother told me “You’re a goddamn slut.“</i>
</blockquote>
If a clause serves as the subject, <b>hibo</b>‘that one’ stands in for it in the main clause:
<blockquote>
<b>Hibo prɛ̀n, <font color="#0000ff">dɛ́ŋ trǎɔ pǎ hà jûje insîbó</font>.</b>
<br>that-thing seem NEG I be sole spy
<br><i>It seems that I am not the only spy.</i>
</blockquote>
An alternative form of subordination is <b>nominalization</b> of a clause, with objects turned into genitives. These are particularly useful for intentives and instrumentals:
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Trǎɔ drɛ̌ tînłó na →</b></font>
<br>I learn carpentry OBJ
<br><i>I’m learning carpentry.</i>
<p><b>→ Trǎɔ jɛ̀s éŋ re <font color="#0000ff">tînłó je drɛ̌ </font> čor łu.</b>
<br>I go she DAT carpentry of learn INTENT PAST
<br><i>I went to her to learn carpentry.</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Pô de tras łàɔrá na łu →</font></b>
<br>he strip my skirt OBJ PAST
<br><i>He removed my skirt.</i>
<p><b>→ Pô háe trǎɔ na <font color="#0000ff">tras łàɔrá je de </font>krɔ łu.</b>
<br>he surprise I OBJ my skirt of remove INSTR PAST
<br><i>He surprised me by removing my skirt.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</a></h3>
Lé conjunctions are simple: any constituents can be joined with a conjunction.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>as</b></td>
<td>and</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sǔ</b></td>
<td>or</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>rǐ</b></td>
<td>because</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>trâe</b></td>
<td>in order that</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>dɔ̀n</b></td>
<td>therefore</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mǒ</b></td>
<td>but, however</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kru</b></td>
<td>rather than, and not</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bâerè</b></td>
<td>just as, in the same way, likewise</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Pánaɔ</font> <font color="#0000ff">as Ŋar</font></b>
<br><i>Fánao and Ŋar</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">dòná sǔ lùná</font> ro</b>
<br><i>in the west or in the east</i>
<p><b><font color="#0000ff">Inbràe as pɛlɔ</font> si hîr trǎɔ re.</b>
<br>lawyer and priest fast need I DAT
<br><i>I need a lawyer and a priest, fast.</i>
<p><b>Klɛ̀ŋ <font color="#0000ff">jǎɔ as sɔ</font> łâtrô na łu.</b>
<br>old.man cook and eat water-rat OBJ PAST
<br><i>The old man cooked and ate the swamp rat.</i>
<p><b>Trǎɔ nù pô na <font color="#0000ff">rǐ</font> drɛ́s jǎɔ. </b>
<br>I love he OBJ because skillful cook
<br><i>I love him because he cooks well.</i>
</blockquote>
<b>As</b> implies that both conjoints are involved equally. If not the comitative is preferred:
<blockquote>
<b>Pánaɔ hós <font color="#ff0000">inbràe bu</font> trun.</b>
<br>Fánao go.by.foot lawyer COMIT FUT
<br><i>Fánao is coming, along with her lawyer.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Adjectives">Adjectives and modals</a></h3>
<h4><a name="adverbs">Verbal modifiers</a></h4>
There is no separate class of adverbs; adjectives can be placed directly before the verb to modify it.
<blockquote>
<b>Inplɛ́s <font color="#0000ff">si</font> tɔ̌ŋ łu.</b>
<br>thief fast speak PAST
<br><i>The thief spoke quickly.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Modal">Modal adjectives</a></h4>
The <b>modals</b> are adjectives, which can be used to modify either nouns or verbs.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2"><td></td>
<td><i>As modal</i></td>
<td><i>As adjective</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>rɛŋ</b></td>
<td>should</td>
<td>recommended, moral</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>čàe</b></td>
<td>must</td>
<td>obligatory</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ŋír</b></td>
<td>maybe; possibly</td>
<td>possible</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bl<b>ɛ̀</b>ŋ</b></td>
<td>unlikely </td>
<td>unlikely</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>łɔ̂s</b></td>
<td>may; be permitted</td>
<td>permissible</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>don</b></td>
<td>surely, certainly</td>
<td>sure, certain</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tǎn</b></td>
<td>knows how to</td>
<td>knowledgable</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ŋan</b></td>
<td>habitually</td>
<td>habitual</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pǎe</b></td>
<td>hypothetically, if</td>
<td>supposed</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ŋɛ̀</b></td>
<td>want to</td>
<td>wanted</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>prɛ̀n</b></td>
<td>seem to</td>
<td>seeming, apparent</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Čàe </font>tǎn tlâe na.</b>
<br>must know region OBJ
<br><i>You gotta know the territory.</i>
<p><b>Prołó pǎ <font color="#0000ff">čàe</font> tǎn.</b>
<br>accounting be must know
<br><i>Accounting is obligatory knowledge.</i>
<p><b>àr ís <font color="#0000ff">tǎn</font> jî má? Trǎɔ <font color="#0000ff">don</font> bàn hina.</b>
<br>Q you know swim Q / I surely hope SUB
<br><i>Can you swim? I sure hope so.</i>
</blockquote>
Negating <b>ŋír</b> gives the meaning “impossible, cannot“; for “maybe not“ use <b>blɛ̀ŋ</b> instead.
<blockquote>
<b>Dɛ́ŋ ís <font color="#0000ff">ŋír</font> jɛ̀s jinlɔ àn re ŋɛsŋɛ čɔŋ.</b>
<br>NEG you visit possible noblewoman HON DAT this-day DURING
<br><i>It’s impossible to have an audience with the Lady today.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="if">If clauses</a></h4>
If clauses are a combination of the modal adjective <b>pǎe</b> with a conjunction such as <b>dɔ̀n</b>:
<blockquote>
<b>ís <font color="#0000ff">pǎe</font> łɛ́ŋ tlu Kɛbrì na <font color="#0000ff">dɔ̀n</font> jɔhù hibo re kle.</b>
<br>you if most adore Kebri OBJ therefore marry that.one DAT IMPER
<br><i>If you love Kebri so much, you should marry it.</i>
</blockquote>
Tense can be indicated, but don’t use the past tense just because English does (“If I fell in love with you...“). Use the past only for conditions that occurred in the past.
<p>The consequent will often have a modal (‘this is what should or must or might happen in that case’); if it doesn’t it can be taken as a logical consequence.
<blockquote>
<b>ís <font color="#0000ff">pǎe</font> hós čódin ro kɔr, is bún pǎ slûr.</b>
<br>you if walk street in JUST.NOW / your feet are dirty
<br><i>If you were walking in the street, your feet are dirty.</i>
</blockquote>
If the chain of consequences continue, one can add <b>pǎe</b> (or more formally <b>his pǎe</b>) to each:
<blockquote>
<b>—Trǎɔ pǎe pǎ kǎɔ dɔ̀n rɛŋ sɛ̌n bɔ̀ ŋán na.</b>
<br>I if be rich therefore should buy big boat OBJ
<br><i>If I were rich I’d buy a big boat.</i>
<p><b>—As pǎe bùr sa na čɛ̀ŋnɛ. As pǎe pǎ jûn.</b>
<br>and if drink liquor OBJ always / and if be cock
<br><i>And drink all the time. And be an asshole.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Comparatives">Comparatives</a></h4>
The formula for comparatives is
<blockquote>
<comparand> <b>mɛ</b> <comparator> <adjective>
</blockquote>
where the comparator is one of:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2"><td></td>
<td><i>As comparator</i></td>
<td><i>As intensive</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>łɛ́ŋ</b></td>
<td>much more / most</td>
<td>exceedingly</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>dláɔ</b></td>
<td>more</td>
<td>very</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bâe</b></td>
<td>as</td>
<td>same</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hǒ</td>
<td>less</td>
<td>not very</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hǒho</b></td>
<td>much less / least</td>
<td>exceedingly not</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<blockquote>
<b>éŋ pǎ <font color="#0000ff">jo mɛ dláɔ si</font>.</b>
<br>she be jaguar ABOUT more fast
<br><i>She’s faster than a jaguar.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
A comparative expression can be used wherever an adjective can, such as before a noun or verb:
<blockquote>
<b>éŋ <font color="#0000ff">jo mɛ dláɔ si</font> tí.</b>
<br>she jaguar ABOUT more fast run
<br><i>She runs faster than a jaguar.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
If the comparand is omitted, it can be taken as the generality of such things— in effect the comparator becomes an intensive, as shown in the last column: <b>dláɔ si</b>‘very fast’, <b>łɛ́ŋ si</b>‘really really fast’.
<p>There’s no syntactic superlative, but the‘extreme’ comparators, especially given a particular or small set of comparands, can be pragmatically taken as indicating a superlative:
<blockquote>
<b>éŋ pǎ <font color="#0000ff">łónèn mɛ łɛ́ŋ si</font> rɛ̀.</b>
<br>she be school ABOUT much.more fast girl
<br><i>She’s the fastest girl in the school.</i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="fields">Semantic fields</a></h3>
<h4><a name="Greetings">Greetings and closings</a></h4>
The commonest greeting, used with equals, is <b>ì</b>! ‘Hello!’ The reply is <b>ɔ̌</b>, which serves in general as an acknowledgement or agreement (i.e. where we’d say “Uh huh“ or “OK“).
<p>With someone you’d use the ordinary honorific with, add their name and the honorific. e.g. <font color="#0000ff"> </font><b>ì Łáɔ</b> <b>îr! </b>“Hello, Ms. Łáɔ!“<font color="#0000ff">
<p></font>In formal situations, or with nobles or royals, more elaborate greetings are used. One of the simplest is
<blockquote>
<b>Hós łu, Línɛ àn.</b>
<br>go.by.foot PAST / Línɛ HON
<br><i>I have come, Lady Línɛ.</i>
<br>
</blockquote>
She will reply <b>ís hós łu</b> “You have come.“
<p>The very same exchange can close the conversation—<b>hós</b> means‘come or go by foot’. In the event you came by boat, you use <b>dè</b> instead.
<p>An all-purpose closer is <b>Trɛ ís na</b> “Bless you“, with honorifics if appropriate.
<h4><a name="polite">Other polite expressions</a></h4>
The commonest way to make a request is to phrase it as a question, replacing the particle <b>má</b> with <b>ǔn</b> (often pronounced in a drawn-out nasalized way):
<blockquote>
<b>àr ís jí tras drɔŋ na trǎɔ re <font color="#0000ff">ǔn</font>?</b>
<br>Q you put my sword OBJ I DAT REQ
<br><i>Would you please hand me my sword?</i>
</blockquote>
It’s not a Bé custom to say “thank you“— even receiving a gift from a superior, one simply bows reverently. This can be very disturbing to visitors from Eretald; noticing this, some Lé when speaking to Ereláeans take to prefacing virtually every statement with <i>Sire</i>, the Kebreni expression for thanking someone for their actions.
<p>On hearing bad news, one says <b>Bǒ ís re</b> “My condolences“; one can also explicitly ask for condolences:
<blockquote>
<b>Bǒ drào re kle!</b>
<br>condole we.few DAT IMPER
<br><i>Condole with us! </i>
</blockquote>
To apologize, one generally uses one of these formulas:
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ saɔr tras dǐŋ na.</b>
<br>I abandon my word OBJ
<br><i>I apologize for my words.</i>
<p><b>Trǎɔ saɔr tras dlɛ̀n na.</b>
<br>I abandon my conduct OBJ
<br><i>I apologize for my behavior.</i>
</blockquote>
One can add a qualifier (e.g. <b>tras jáŋ dlɛ̀n</b>‘my outrageous behavior’), but specifics should be left for subsequent sentences.
<h4><a name="Pragmatic">Pragmatic markers</a></h4>
These can occur either at the beginning or the end of a sentence.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2"><td><i>Marker</i></td>
<td><i>Usage</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>mɛ̌</b></td>
<td>Marks dispreferreds.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Mɛ̌</font> dɛ́ŋ Kúŋsàɔ prɛ̀n drê tràŋ na.</b>
<br>well / NEG Uytai seem have queen OBJ
<br><i>Well... Uytai doesn’t really have a queen.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>ɔ̌</b></td>
<td>Expresses acknowledgement, agreement, or simply that one is listening.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Ɔ̌</font> bàr tlúr na.</b>
<br>OK six tlúr OBJ
<br><i>Mm hmm, (you want) six bananas.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>trɛ́s</b></td>
<td>Excuses jostling or interruptions.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Trɛ́s</font>— àr nonnèn łɔ̌ krɛn má?</b>
<br>excuse / Q customs there.is here Q
<br><i>Excuse me, is this the customs office?</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>kisbo mɛ</b></td>
<td>Marks a sudden change of topic.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Kisbo mɛ</font> júŋlɔ tân brù ŋɛs drûr na má?</b>
<br>another-thing ABOUT someone know kill this monster OBJ Q
<br><i>So... anyone know how to kill this monster?</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>hibo łɔ̌</b></td>
<td>Ends a digression (of one’s own).
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Hibo łɔ̌</font>... łɛ̌n mɛ.</b>
<br>that.thing there.is / dinner ABOUT
<br><i>Anyway, what about dinner?</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>ŋé</b></td>
<td>“Yes but...“— acknowledges or simply dismisses a point, but insists that it’s really irrelevant (see also <i>Questions</i>).
<blockquote>
<b>éŋ tlɛ̀ ŋan plɔ̀r <font color="#0000ff">ŋé</font>.</b>
<br>she damn habitually lie yeah
<br><i>Yeah, sure, but she’s still a damn liar.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>ɛ</b></td>
<td>Prolongs a turn or marks dispreferreds; can occur anywhere in the sentence.
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ ŋɛ̀ čaelu na <font color="#0000ff">ɛ</font>... bluŋ bu rɔ̌r čaelu na.</b>
<br>I want tea OBJ um bluŋ COM warm tea OBJ
<br><i>I’d like tea um... warm tea with bluŋ [a spice].</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>dɔ̀n</b></td>
<td>“So...“— acknowledges a point, but presses on to insist on something or demand action.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Dɔ̀n</font> bɛ́bo na jàɔ jǎɔ trun má?</b>
<br>therefore what-thing OBJ we.two do FUT Q
<br><i>So what do we do now?</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>jì</b></td>
<td>Expresses surprise or appreciation.
<blockquote>
<b><font color="#0000ff">Jì</font> his tɛr pǎ prépré!</b>
<br>wow that guy be sexy
<br><i>Wow, what a sexy guy!</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td bgcolor="#C29CC8"><b>è</b></td>
<td>As a clitic, expresses commiseration or self-pity; as an interjection it’s the word for “ouch!“
<blockquote>
<b>His tras rɛ̀ ŋan plɛ̀ŋ bún na <font color="#0000ff">è</font>.</b>
<br>that my girl habitually tread.on foot OBJ ow
<br><i>Oy, that child of mine is a handful.</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="day">The day</a></h4>
Most people divide the day (<b>nɛ</b>) according to the position of the sun.
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2">
<td></td>
<td><i>Time</i></td>
<td><i>Etymology</i></td></tr>
<tr>
<td><b>mǎslù</b></td>
<td>dawn</td>
<td>sun birth</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>númǎs</b></td>
<td>morning</td>
<td>sun rising</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>prámǎs</b></td>
<td>noon</td>
<td>sun high</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>b<b>ɛ́</b>mǎs</b></td>
<td>afternoon</td>
<td>sun falling</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mǎsdò</b></td>
<td>dusk</td>
<td>sun death</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sâr</b></td>
<td>night</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</table>
</blockquote>
For more precise timing, the daylight hours are divided into eight periods called <b>brɔ̀r</b> (literally eighths), which are numbered using the ordinals: e.g. <b>sé brɔ̀r</b>‘first hour’ = 6 to 7:30 a.m.; <b>čɛrkɛ brɔ̀r</b>‘fourth hour’ = noon to 1:30 p.m.
</table></blockquote>
Astronomers and sailors have extended this to the nighttime; e.g. <b>sâr je láe brɔ̀r </b>‘second hour of the night’ = 7:30 to 9:00 p.m.
<p>Only scientists really care about any further division, and they’ve settled on defining the <b>kí </b>‘instant’ as 1/90<font size=1>8</font> (i.e 1/72) of a <b>brɔ̀r</b>— that is, 1.25 minutes. This value has the advantage that it’s one fourth of a Verdurian <i>megua</i>, allowing easier translation of Verdurian works on physics and navigation.
<p>There is no idea of a week.
<h4><a name="larger">Larger time periods</a></h4>
There are only two seasons in the Bé rain forest: <b>ł<b>ɛ̀</b></b>‘monsoon season’ and <b>jučìŋ</b>‘dry season’ (dry in the sense that it’s not raining buckets).
<p>Years (<b>łuŋ</b>) are numbered according to the reign of the current queen. The current queen, Líŋhír, came to the throne in 3457, so the year is currently <b>tâs krɛ̀</b> 278 = 23; in a historical account we’d write <b>Líŋhír je (łuŋ</b>) <b>tâs krɛ̀</b>.
<p>For more careful accounting, months (<b>sáečìŋ</b>) are counted, one month being the period of the moon Iliažë (<b>Sáemàe</b>). There is no attempt to make the months fit into the 328 days of the year. One might refer to this month (<b>ŋɛs sáečìŋ</b>), last month (<b>jɔ́r sáečìŋ</b>), and next month (<b>trun</b> <b>sáečìŋ</b>), or use the number of months again dating from the queen’s accession. The current month, as of olašu 3480, is <b>ròs rɔ̀r as</b> <b>čɛrtàn</b> 4128 = 266.
<h4><a name="Family">Family</a></h4>
The prototypical family (<b>jɔ</b>) is all the female descendents of one old woman plus their husbands and unmarried children. It’s most comfortable when it has two daughters of mature age, perhaps twenty members in all.
<p><i>For more on Lé families, see the Almeopedia article on <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Beic_sex_roles">Beic sex roles</a>, or the biography of <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/M%C3%BAr">Múr</a>.</i>
<p>Here are the basic kinship terms, sorted by age cohort:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2">
<td><i>cohort</i></td>
<td><i>term</i></td>
<td><i>gender</i></td>
<td><i>gloss</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td>-2 +</td>
<td><b>háɔ</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>matriarch</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>-2 </td>
<td><b>nó</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>grandmother</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>-2 +</td>
<td><b>kae</b></td>
<td>f *</td>
<td>elder: i.e. any woman of -2 cohort not the <b>háɔ</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#C29CC8"><td>-1</td>
<td><b>bǎ</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>mother</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#C29CC8"><td>-1</td>
<td><b>nás</b></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>father (i.e. mother’s husband)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#C29CC8"><td>-1</td>
<td><b>tres</b></td>
<td>f *</td>
<td>aunt: older sister of mother</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#C29CC8"><td>-1</td>
<td><b>ŋûn</b></td>
<td>f *</td>
<td>aunt: younger sister of mother</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ego</td>
<td><b>kɛ̌ŋ </b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>older sister </td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ego</td>
<td><b>lûr</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>younger sister</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ego</td>
<td><b>ri</b></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>brother</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ego</td>
<td><b>čɔ̌ŋ</b></td>
<td>f *</td>
<td>older cousin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ego</td>
<td><b>sà</b></td>
<td>f *</td>
<td>younger cousin</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>ego</td>
<td><b>bɛ̂n</b></td>
<td>m *</td>
<td>cousin</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#C29CC8"><td>+1</td>
<td><b>sáŋ</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>daughter</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#C29CC8"><td>+1</td>
<td><b>tɛ</b></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>son</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#C29CC8"><td>+1</td>
<td><b>jǎ</b></td>
<td>f *</td>
<td>niece (daughter of any sibling or cousin)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#C29CC8"><td>+1</td>
<td><b>pɛ̀ŋ</b></td>
<td>m *</td>
<td>nephew</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>+2</td>
<td><b>ŋâe</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>granddaughter (one’s daughter’s daughter)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>+2 </td>
<td><b>slin</b></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>grandson (one’s daughter’s son)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>+2</td>
<td><b>jǎsáŋ</b></td>
<td>f *</td>
<td>niece’s daughter</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>+2</td>
<td><b>jǎŋor</b></td>
<td>m *</td>
<td>niece’s son</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
The terms marked in the gender column with an <b>asterisk</b> should be taken as <i>remainder categories</i>: they cover whoever is left in that cohort of the appopriate sex (and relative age, for cohorts 0 and -1). Often enough a <b>jɔ</b> includes more distant branches, and the kinship terms take no account of distance, except for direct descent.
<p>The most general term can also be used to refer to the entire cohort; e.g. <b>tras sà čɛ̀ŋ</b> (lit.‘all my cousins’) is everyone of my age.
<p><b>Nó</b> is only used if one’s grandmother isn’t the <b>háɔ</b> (generally because her mother or sister is <b>háɔ</b> instead).
<p><b>Háɔ</b> overrides any other term which might apply except for <b>bǎ</b>.
<p>One’s own <b>husband</b> is a <b>čětɛ</b>. The husbands of all other female relatives can be derived by adding -<b>tɛ</b>— e.g. <b>trestɛ</b>‘aunt’s husband’, <b>sáŋtɛ</b>‘son-in-law’.
<p>Given the generalization rule, one can refer to the set of all the men in the <b>jɔ</b> a woman can have sex with— her husband and those of her sisters and cousins— as <b>sàtɛ</b>, or <b>sàtɛ čɛ̀ŋ</b>‘all the cousins’.
<p>There aren’t simple terms for <b>brothers</b> of female relatives above cohort 0, since they leave the <b>jɔ</b>. They may keep in touch, of course, and one can refer to them with formulas such as <b>tres je ri</b>‘aunt’s brother’. Similarly the daughter of your son is called <b>tɛ je</b> <b>sáŋ</b>‘son’s daughter’; she can’t be called <b>ŋâe</b> as she is not part of your <b>jɔ</b>.
<p>If you’re a <b>male</b>, you marry into a new <b>jɔ</b>, and for kinship terms you follow a simple rule: you call everyone what your wife does. (She herself is your <b>hùlo</b>.) So you call her mother <b>bǎ</b>, her younger sister <b>lûr</b>, and so on. In rare cases one might want to specify that the relationship is <b>hùro</b>‘by marriage’; your birth relatives can be qualified as <b>lùje</b>‘by birth’.
<p>The general term for a female <b>family member</b> is <b>jɔlɔ</b>. The men are usually divided into the <b>čětɛ</b> (the husbands, literally those who have been accepted) and the <b>saɔrtɛ</b> (the younger males, literally the leavetakers— those who will be leaving when they get married). If for some reason a man never marries, he’s a <b>blɛ́tɛ</b> (‘stay-man’). There’s also a non-gendered term <b>injɔ</b> for any family member, but it sounds a bit bureaucratic.
<p>Anyone who dies becomes an <b>ôn</b>, an ancestor. A <b>jɔ</b> that’s recently split off from yours is a <b>bâeôn</b>, literally‘same ancestor’.
<p>Talking to or about someone from a male-dominated culture, Lé adapt these terms as best they can. In a literary context one might try to use native terms. One borrowing has proved useful: <b>hàɔhór</b>, from Uyseʔ <i>hyauhyor</i>, for‘patriarch’ or any male head of family. (Note the different tone from <b>háɔ</b>.)
<h4><a name="Names">Names</a></h4>
Lé names (<b>âe</b>) are one- or two-word phrases of transparent meaning. Many are traditional (there’s a tendency to re-use names within a <i>jɔ</i>), but there is no fixed stock of names, and new combinations can be freely invented.
<p>One-word names, typical of rural areas, usually fall into one of these categories:
<br>
<ul>
<li>Virtues: <b>Bàn</b> ‘hope’, <b>Čûr</b> ‘revenge’, <b>Dǎɔ</b> ‘glory’, <b>Hɛ́n </b> ‘inner peace’, <b>Kàɔ</b> ‘honor’, <b>Kos </b>‘worth’, <b>Làe</b> ‘peace’, <b>Lán</b> ‘grace’, <b>Łáɔ</b> ‘dream’, <b>Náe</b> ‘pride’
<br><li>Adjectives: <b>Brɛ́</b> ‘sharp’, <b>Čǐr</b >‘chubby’, <b>Dâe </b> ‘best’, <b>Dao</b> ‘bright’, <b>Dɛ̀</b> ‘mercy’, <b>Jé</b> ‘strong’, <b>Lâ</b> ‘lucky’, <b>Lí</b> ‘happy’, <b>Los</b> ‘carefree’, <b>Łìs</b> ‘merry’, <b>Míŋ</b> ‘radiant’, <b>Nàŋ</b> ‘handsome’, <b>Ŋi</b> ‘little’, <b>ó</b> ‘beautiful’, <b>Si</b> ‘quick’, <b>So</b> ‘playful’, <b>Sɔn </b>‘dark’, <b>Tàe</b> ‘fragrant’
<br><li>Animals, flowers, and other nature words: <b>Hǎ</b> ‘blossom’, <b>Hás</b> ‘beetle’, <b>Klí</b> ‘star’, <b>Mě</b> ‘cat’, <b>Múr</b> ‘type of tree’, <b>Ŋar</b> ‘farm cat’, <b>Ŋín</b> ‘type of flower’, <b>Prín</b> ‘amber’, <b>Ɔ</b> ‘flower’, <b>Rǔ</b> ‘jewel’, <b>Sáe</b> ‘sky’, <b>Sâr</b> ‘night’, <b>Trâo</b> ‘waterfall’, <b>Trɛ̌n</b> ‘stone’
<br>
</ul>
Most names can be applied to either gender (unless the underlying word is gendered; e.g. <b>ó</b> and <b>nàŋ</b>‘beautiful’ are feminine and masculine respectively). However, names may be chosen following Beic stereotypes:
<br>
<ul>
<li>Women are considered (or desired) to be beautiful, intelligent, masterful, spiritual, and have greater responsibilities
<br><li>Men are deemed to be decoratively handsome, emotional, playful, supportive, strong, submissive, contentious
<br>
</ul>
Thus names like <b>Los </b>‘carefree’ or <b>So </b>‘playful’ are perfectly appropriate for males, but would be ironic or slightly insulting nicknames for females. The graver virtues such as <b>Kàɔ</b>‘honor’ would seem hifalutin applied to males.
<p>If you never leave your <b>hɛ́nèn</b>, your usual haunts, one syllable is enough of a name. In the cities it’s more usual to give two-word names. Here are some samples:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td>Dɛ̀hàr</td>
<td>mercy and justice</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Dìlɔ</td>
<td>wise woman</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Dìnà</td>
<td>wise heart</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Dɔjíŋ </td>
<td>loyal to Jíŋ (a goddess)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Hìnŋáe</td>
<td>golden eye</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Hònkǎo</td>
<td>silk riches</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Jolɔ</td>
<td>jaguar woman</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Kǎɔtrun</td>
<td>rich future</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Kosmàe</td>
<td>worthy mistress</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Kûnrɛ̀s</td>
<td>brave fighter</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Lánhós</td>
<td>graceful walk</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Lédǎɔ</td>
<td>Lé glory</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Línɛ</td>
<td>happy day</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Líŋhír</td>
<td>good omen</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Líłáɔ</td>
<td>happy dream</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Łáča</td>
<td>enthusiastic effort</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Ŋinàŋ</td>
<td>little beauty</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nílàe</td>
<td>gate of peace</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Nînlâe</td>
<td>flower decency</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Ŋíntàe</td>
<td>flower fragrance</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Rɛ̀snà</td>
<td>fighting spirit</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Rínŋáe</td>
<td>silver eye</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Sɔnjɔs</td>
<td>black hair</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tàehǎ</td>
<td>fragrant blossom</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tâɔnà</td>
<td>only heart</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Tlarŋáe</td>
<td>sparkling eye</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Trɛlù</td>
<td>blessed birth</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Trɛŋáe</td>
<td>blessed eye</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>Trɛ̌ssáe</td>
<td>reach heaven</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Lé often take or are given new names as a sign of taking on a new career or identity. Princess <b>Hìnŋáe</b> of Mɔłɔsɔu, for instance, took the name <b>Tâɔnà</b> after her enlightenment. The lover of the pirate empress Ŋíntàe had the name <b>Čiŋpé</b>‘half-crazy’, a nickname given upon her entrance into the gang.
<p><b>Nicknames</b> are formed with the diminutive -<b>r</b> (<b>Lâ</b> → <b>Lâr</b>, <b>Náe</b> → <b>Náer</b>, <b>Ɔ</b> →<b> Ɔr, Línɛ</b> → <b>Línɛr</b>) or with simple qualifiers (<b>Bɔ̀ Lâ</b>‘big Lâ’; <b>Ŋí Náe</b>‘little Náe’; <b>So Ɔ</b>‘cute Ɔ’, <b>Mào </b> <b>Línɛ </b>‘old Línɛ’).
<p>Reduplication forms babytalk names, which may also persist as nicknames: <b>Lâlâ, Náenáe, Ɔɔ, Lílí</b>.
<p>For both formulas, only the first syllable of a two-syllable name is used: <b>Dɛ̀hàr → Dɛ̀r</b> or <b>Dɛ̀dɛ̀</b>.
<h4><a name="Despectives">Despectives</a></h4>
Some of the strongest terms in Lé are religious: <b>nàdòłu</b>‘damned, unenlightened’, <b>pɛnae</b>‘godness, immoral’, <b>tlɛ̀</b>‘damned, rejected (by the goddesses)’. <b>Pɛ</b>‘goddess’ also serves as a sort of religiously tinged intensifier— e.g. <b>pɛbru</b>‘goddess-lamed’, <b>pɛpé </b>‘goddess-crazy’, <b>pɛpɔ̌ŋ</b>‘goddess-sick’ all suggest afflictions beyond the ordinary— conditions so unusual they must be caused by divinities.
<p>Only a little less charged are words related to excreta: <b>plù</b>‘shit’, <b>sì</b>‘piss’, <b>dlòje</b>‘vomitous’.
<p>But perhaps more interesting are the range of terms expressing the Bé view of the sexes, something of a distorted mirror image of our own. For instance, there are quite a few words for unsatisfactory types of men:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>bǎrtɛ</b></td>
<td>a man too attached to his mother</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>bíbi</b></td>
<td>puppy; a weak or cringing man</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>čɛ̌hǎs</b></td>
<td>an amusing but useless fellow; boy toy </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hàbɔr</b></td>
<td>a man with a nice body but an ugly face </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hónplè</b></td>
<td>male prostitute </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>inbandrás</b></td>
<td>groper, a man who touches too much or inappropriately</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>intùn</b></td>
<td>a man who always seems to be fighting other men </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>krútle</b></td>
<td>irrational, emotional, masculine</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>màeŋor</b></td>
<td>bossy boy; a boy who acts like a girl </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mɔ́ŋtlùs</b></td>
<td>a man who tries to help but only makes things worse </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mûnje</b></td>
<td>stubborn or dangerous like a nawr bull</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ɔ̌stɛ</b></td>
<td>a man who bosses his wife around</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>pàshón</b></td>
<td>impotent man</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sârjâtɛ</b></td>
<td>an unfaithful, cheating man</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sôstɛr</b></td>
<td>boy toy; a man good at lovemaking but too frivolous to marry</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tré</b></td>
<td>drone; a cheating male</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>trô</b></td>
<td>rat— a very insulting term for males only</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>trǒtɛ</b></td>
<td>a man who never seems to talk </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>úŋhór</b></td>
<td>horndog, a man consumed with sex</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Compare <b>ɔ̌stɛ</b>, <b>màeŋor</b>, <b>krútle</b> with our <i>virago, tomboy, hysterical</i>. But these are not pure reversals; e.g. a <b>màeŋor</b> is‘girlish’ in the context of a society where girls take charge and dominate. It wouldn’t occur to any Lé to call weak or gentle behavior‘girlish’— that’s <b>bíbi</b>‘puppyish’.
<p>Other terms simply view men as sex objects:
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>hór</b></td>
<td>dick, cock; general slang for a male</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ìsuje</b></td>
<td>having the delicate beauty and hesitant manner associated with early (male) youth</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kér</b></td>
<td>well-formed male ass; cute guy</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>lamítɛ</b></td>
<td>hottie, a man who makes you swoon</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>líŋrɔ̌ŋ</b></td>
<td>lusty lad, nice piece of ass </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>prɛ́ŋprɛ́ŋ</b></td>
<td>a well-built man, an Adonis </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>sodlàɔ</b></td>
<td>good-looking (esp. of men based on the face)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tǐkɔ̀</b></td>
<td>a man highly skilled at foreplay</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>tláejɔs</b></td>
<td>with long and beautiful hair (associated with aristocratic men)</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
<b>Pín</b>‘fuck’ can be put in this category; its root meaning is to grasp with the beak or muzzle, used of animals— the imagery is a woman grabbing at a penis like a hungry animal. Males must make do with the much less vivid <b>lírhù</b>‘enter the pussy’.
<p>Feminists talk about the vanishing female perspective in male-dominant societies. The female perspective is of course normalized and celebrated in Beic society:
<ul>
<li>There’s half a dozen words referring to pregnancy, e.g. <b>łón</b>‘newly and happily pregnant’, <b>tràe</b>‘annoyed at being pregnant at an inconvenient time’, even <b>krúprô</b>‘anxious about being a father for the first time’
<li>Many words relate to the details of relationships: <b>rɔ̌</b>‘fall back in love with someone against one’s better judgment’, <b>nîr</b>‘touch affectionately and intimately but without wanting to have sex’, <b>trǒtɛ </b>‘a man who never seems to talk’, <b>klɔ́r</b>‘rage at someone for being the same way for years on end’
<li>There are specific words for each part of the female genitalia, there’s just one for the whole male genitals— <b>hónbɔr</b>‘testicles’ are just considered the lower part of the penis
</ul>
Of course there are despective terms for women; indeed, as women are considered the more serious moral agents, these are much more condemnatory than the male-focused terms above.
<blockquote><table>
<tr><td><b>d<b>ɛ́ŋr<b>ɛ̀</b></b></td>
<td>a young girl given to contradicting her elders </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>dliŋlɔ</b></td>
<td>promiscuous woman,‘man-izer’ </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>dòŋǎje</b></td>
<td>worldly, earthly, non-spiritual, mortal</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hóndaŋ</b></td>
<td>geld (of animals); cut or damage the penis as a punishment</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>hùs</b></td>
<td>weak, fragile, wimpy </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kàɔdɛ</b></td>
<td>dishonorable, worthless</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>kûndɛ</b></td>
<td>cowardly</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>mɔ̀tló</b></td>
<td>tyrant, dictator</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ràjùs</b></td>
<td>sleep around, sleep outside one’s <i>jɔ</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>slìs</b></td>
<td>cruel, sadistic</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>trǔŋŋɛ̀</b></td>
<td>perversion (esp. incest)</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ǔdù</b></td>
<td>a large parasitic worm, similar to a guinea worm; a woman who refuses to work or support her family</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
Not all of the words above are technically restricted to women, but in a Lé context they sound strange or pretentious applied to men. E.g. <b>kàɔ</b>‘honor’ is an attribute of a warrior or aristocrat— all females in Lé culture— so it would be odd to accuse a male of being <b>kàɔdɛ.</b>
<p>The Lé have no obsession with virginity (indeed, the term <b>kâɔrir</b>‘virgin’ was borrowed from Kebreni, and is mostly used to describe <b>mahés</b>‘female prostitutes’, another borrowing). As a corollary sleeping around is no great sin. For a woman to do it (<b>ràjùs</b>) is a little worse than for a man (<b>sârjâ</b>) simply because she’s supposed to be a stronger, less animalistic being. On the other hand, to sexually assault someone (<b>banmǎn</b>) is a much more serious crime for a man.
<h4><a name="divine">Divinities</a></h4>
The Lé goddesses and gods (<b>pɛ</b>) are associated with personalities rather than portfolios. Traditionally, upon coming of age at about eleven, a Lé would choose a particular divinity (of either sex) whose aspects matched or complemented their own.
<p>The major divinities:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2">
<td><i>Name</i></td>
<td><i>Gender</i></td>
<td><i>Attributes</i></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Dlɛ́s</b></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>wild and unconventional, seductive and anarchic</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>ìsu</b></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>beautiful, young, innocent</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Jíŋ</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>ambitious and haughty </td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Kâ</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>malignant and dangerous</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Lín</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>playful, uncareful, and lustful</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Łas</b></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>wild, strong, alternately merry and furious, narcissitic</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Ŋisú</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>sunny and helpful</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Ŋòŋ</b></td>
<td>m</td>
<td>miserable, degraded, depressed</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Sáemàe</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>intelligent, cold, eccentric</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Sɔn</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>authoritarian, hard-working, disciplined</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><b>Tɔ̀</b></td>
<td>f</td>
<td>dark and sullen</td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
These names also serve as semantic archetypes, through compounding:
<ul>
<li>-<b>je</b> forms an adjective applying these attributes; e.g. <b>línje</b>‘having Lín’s personality’, i.e.‘playful, lusty, careless’; the diminutive -<b>r</b> can be used to make the characterization less emphatic or more affectionate
<li>-<b>dɛ</b> names the opposite of the god’s personality; e.g. a <b>líndɛ </b>person is serious and sexually unresponsive
<li>-<b>lɔ</b> and -<b>tɛ</b> (or more specific terms such as <b>rɛ̀</b>‘girl’) name people with those attributes— e.g. <b>línlɔ</b>‘a lustful, playful woman’
<li>Other derivations often exist, e.g. <b>línmo</b>‘organ of Lín = the female genitals’, <b>kâdǐŋ</b>‘word of Kâ = curse’, <b>tɔ̀pɔ̌ŋ</b>‘Tɔ̀ disease = melancholy’, <b>sɔntlìn</b>‘Sɔn rule = conservativism’
<li>Two names can be combined to imply a combination of theri attributes: e.g. <b>ìsujíŋje</b>‘beautiful and prideful’; <b>dlɛ́stɔ̀je</b>‘wild yet sullen’.
</ul>
<h4><a name="Measurements">Measurements</a></h4>
The basic units of <b>length</b>:
<blockquote><table>
<tr bgcolor="#AC85B2">
<td><i>Unit</i>
<td><i>Relation</i></td> <td><i>In kráɔ</i></d> <td><i>Metric</i></td>
<td><i>Etymology</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>brɔ̀r</b>
<td>1/8 kráɔ</td> <td>1/8</td> <td>2.18 mm</td>
<td>‘one eighth’ (of <i>kráɔ</i>) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>kráɔ</b>
<td>base unit</td> <td>1</td> <td>1.746 cm</td>
<td>‘nail’ (width of Queen Trɛlù's fingernail) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>čɛr</b>
<td>4 kráɔ</td> <td>4</td> <td>6.984 cm</td>
<td>‘(width of) hand’ </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>kisná</b>
<td>2 čɛr</td> <td>8</td> <td>13.97 cm</td>
<td>‘other way’ (i.e. length of hand) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>tláe</b>
<td>3 kisná</td> <td>24</td><td>41.9 cm</td>
<td>‘length’ </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>kribún</b>
<td>2 tláe</td> <td>48</td> <td>83.8 cm</td>
<td>‘full foot’ (i.e. a step with both feet) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>ŋâeniŋ</b>
<td>16 kribún</td> <td>384</td> <td>6.704 m</td>
<td>‘turn’s granddaughter’ </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>sáŋniŋ</b>
<td>8 ŋâeniŋ</td> <td>6144</td> <td>107.3 m</td>
<td>‘turn’s daughter’ </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>niŋ</b>
<td>8 sáŋniŋ</td> <td>49,152</td> <td>858 m</td>
<td>‘turn’ (of ox plowing, i.e. length of a field) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>mǎs</b>
<td>8 niŋ</td> <td>393,216</td> <td>6.866 km</td>
<td>‘sun’, how far you can walk in a <i>brɔ̀r</i>, 1.5 hours </td>
</tr>
</table></blockquote>
The notional length of a field, 1 <b>niŋ</b>, when squared gives a measurement for area, the <b>kriniŋ</b>: 858 m<sup>2</sup> = 73.6 hectares = 182 acres. This is inconvenient for actual fields, which are measured in <b>ŋâekriniŋ</b> of 1/64 this size (1.15 hectares).
<p>Mɔłɔ measurements have the same names, but the <i>brɔ̀r</i> through the <i>kribún</i> are 1/12 larger. Thus the Mɔłɔ <i>kráɔ</i> is 1.89 cm.
<h3><a name="Examples">Examples</a></h3>
<h4><a name="prayer">A mother’s wedding prayer for her son</a></h4>
This is a traditional text, at least a century old, its author unknown, though it’s said to have been written by a mother whose son would be living a long way off, and thus that she would never see again. It’s the sort of thing that’s recited at weddings, or these days printed with a sentimental scene and given to the young man as he moves to his new <i>jɔ</i>. It expresses a traditional and conservative piety enlivened by the pathos of farewell— though the vast majority of newly married men live close enough to their birth <i>jɔ</i> to visit.
<blockquote>
<b>ís pôn dró ta mar as ís jɔhù kɔr.</b>
<br>you become mature AS now / and you band-entry just.now
<br><i>You are now fully a man; you are married.</i>
<p><b>Pɛ tras as is trɛ ís re as mɛ̀ŋ ís re kle.</b>
<br>my and your goddess bless you DAT and instruct you DAT IMPER
<br><i>May my Goddess and yours bless and instruct you. </i>
<p><b>Hùlɔ re ís dɔ as jé pǎ kle; dɛ́ŋ trǎɔ dɛ is tló pâ, éŋ pǎ.</b>
<br>wife DAT you loyal and strong be IMPER / NEG I NOT your mistress be / she be
<br><i>Be loyal and strong for your wife; she, not I, is your mistress now.</i>
<p><b>Tláɔ jɔ je háɔ mǐ ís re líŋŋáe bu kle.</b>
<br>new band of chief look you DAT favor COMIT IMPER
<br><i>May the matron of your new family look favorably on you!</i>
<p><b>Tláɔ innà na lús ís trun as rɛ̀ na bre pɛ trun,</b>
<br>new friend OBJ find you FUT and children OBJ give goddess FUT
<br><i>You will find new friends and the Goddess will give you children,</i>
<p><b>dɛ́ŋ nɛ mán krò dɛ́ŋ trǎɔ braŋ ís na nù krɔ senɛ tur.</b>
<br>NEG day none end NEG I remember you OBJ love INSTR SUB on
<br><i>but no day will pass when I do not think of you with my love.</i>
<p><b>Pɔ̌ŋčìŋ tran as rɛ̀sčìŋ tran ro pɛ sî ís re kle,</b>
<br>sickness away and war at away goddess protect you DAT IMPER
<br><i>May the Goddess keep you from sickness and war,</i>
<p><b>mǒ kiskrɔ pǎe pǎ, rur lɔs dòŋǎ ro táe čìŋ čɔŋ.</b>
<br>but otherwise if be / we.all reside death-world at short season during
<br><i>but if it is otherwise, we are in the realm of death only a short time.</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="fighting">On fighting men</a></h4>
The short story <a href="rogues.htm">“The Rogues“</a> is mine, but based on Beic sources, especially the collection of Fánao and Ŋar stories made by <b>Indâe</b> of Maume. This conversation (not actually drawn from her account of the temple of Kâ) is taken from Indâe’s book, <i>Ŋar as Pánaɔ je tɛ̌nnâr dàe (Genuine stories of Ŋar and Fánao</i>, 3458).
<p><i>Fánao</i> is a Mau form of the original Ayalampan <i>Vanawa</i>; the best representation in Lé is <b>Pánaɔ</b>.
<p>An English narrative customarily includes authorial observations, but in Lé it’s common, as here, to simply set the scene, then show only the characters’s speeches, as in a play.
<blockquote>
<b>Pánaɔ re hù mɛ̌ŋ łu as ór dabà ŋɛs dadǐŋ łu.</b>
<br>Fánao DAT enter idea PAST and begin this converse-words PAST
<br>Note the topicalization in the first clause (the idea, being new, moves to the end).
<br><i>An idea occurred to Fánao, and she began this conversation.</i>
<p><b>—Práŋ his rɛ̀smɛ kle, éŋ tɔ̌ŋ hina łu. Dɛ́ŋ jéŋ pǎe pǎ dɛ Bé dɔ̀n àr bɛ́bo na ís jǎɔ má?</b>
<br>consider that fight ABOUT IMPER / she say SUB PAST / NEG they.two if be not Bé therefore what-thing OBJ you do Q
<br><i>—Consider that fight, she said. What would you have done if they weren’t Bé?</i>
<p><b>—Bɛ́bo ís tɔ̌ŋ má?</b>
<br>what.thing you say Q
<br><i>—What do you mean? </i>
<p><b>—ís pǎe trɛ̌s bâe čìŋ re mǒ lɔ as tɛ klě krâerǐŋ na as kúŋ łàɔrá na.</b>
<br>you if reach same situation DAT but woman and man wear blue-skin OBJ and Uytai clothes OBJ
<br>In Lé both skin and clothes are‘worn’ (<i>klě</i>).
<br><i>—You come upon the same scene, but the woman and man are blue-skinned, wearing Uytainese dress.</i>
<p><b>—Trírrá, trǎɔ hǎerɛn ís na kɔr. Hibo prɛ̀n Bé kɛs, tɛ kru lɔ mǎn. Čàe dlɔ́r hina tɛ tlìn sero prɔ̌ná sû Kapáłà ro.</b>
<br>barbarian i understand you OBJ JUST.NOW / that-thing seem Bé outside man and.not woman attack / must deduce SUB men rule SUB south or Qapalya at
<br>Note that the proposition <i>tɛ kru lɔ mǎn</i> serves as the antecedent for both the previous and the following clause.
<br><i>—I understand you now, barbarian. Outside the Bé, it would seem that the man was attacking, not the woman. In the south, or in Qapalya, where men rule, you would have to interpret it thus.</i>
<p><b>—Dɔ̀n bɛ́bo na ís pǎe jǎɔ má?</b>
<br>therefore what.thing OBJ you if do Q
<br><i>—And what would you do then?</i>
<p><b>—Pǎe mǎn jéŋ.</b>
<br>if attack those.two
<br>These statements continue a hypothetical situation, so they use <i>pǎe</i>.
<br><i>—Attack both of them. </i>
<p><b>—Mêr tǎn hina, tɛ drɛ́s tǎn rɛ̀s. Łéŋ ŋír pǎ slìs as dláo jé.</b>
<br>cat-dim know SUB men skillful know fight / they possibly be cruel and very strong
<br>Literally, “Kitty knows...“ No one but Fánao would be advised to call Ŋar‘kitty’.
<br><i>—Men can fight well, you know, little cat. They can be cruel, and they have enormous strength.</i>
<p><b>—Mûn łin, mǒ dɛ́ŋ rur jàn łéŋ na inrɛ̀s čor.</b>
<br>nawr.bull like / but NEG we.all appoint they OBJ soldier PURPOSE
<br><i>—Like a nawr ox, but we don’t make them warriors.</i>
<p><b>—Lé je łís ràr klîs łís je ràbo na. Tɛ re bre drɔŋ na Mɔ̀lɔsàɔ ro as łéŋ mîr rɛ̀s čor drɔ̌nké sǔ héŋké ro. Is tir pǎ łéŋ je drɔŋ mɛ dláo hùt.</b>
<br>lé GEN you.all too used.to you.all GEN bed OBJ / men DAT give sword OBJ Mɔłɔsou in and they serve fight PURPOSE defense or infantry in / your dagger be they of sword ABOUT more weak
<br>The Lé idiom is literally “used to your own beds“.
<br><i>—You Lé are too used to your own traditions. Even in Mɔłɔsɔu the men are given swords and serve in the army, either as defenders or as forward infantry. Your dagger wouldn’t stand against their sword.</i>
<p><b>—As mûn je bláɔ mɛ. Dɔ̀n bɛ́bo má?</b>
<br>and nawr.bull of horn about / therefore what-thing Q
<br><i>—Nor against a nawr’s horns, and so what?</i>
<p><b>—Dɔ̀n ís nɛ̂ rɛ̀s mɔ̀lɔ inhéŋtɛ dlàɔná.</b>
<br>therefore you fear fight Mɔłɔ infantry-man face-direction
<br>‘Directly’ is really a place clitic:‘to the face’.
<br><i>—So you would be afraid to fight a Mɔłɔ swordsman directly.</i>
<p><b>—Dɔ̀n ísòŋná. Mǒ bɛ́bo ís mɛ má? Trǎɔ ŋɛ̀ mǐ hina ís rɛ̀s mɔ̀lɔ inhéŋtɛ na. Trǎɔ don sòjí ís héŋ ro.</b>
<br>therefore far-direction / but what.thing you ABOUT Q / I want see SUB you fight Mɔłɔ infantry-man OBJ / I sure bet you near at
<br>You bet‘near’ your favorite,‘far from’ the one you think will lose.
<br><i>—Then indirectly. But what about you? I’d like to see a fight between you and a Mɔłɔ swordsman. Surely I would bet on your side. </i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="enlightenment">Seeking enlightenment</a></h4>
The following is a portion of the story of <b><a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/T%C3%A2%C9%94n%C3%A0">Lady Tâɔnà</a></b>, the founder of the <a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/N%C3%A0%C5%82%C3%B3">Nàłó</a> or Interiorist school of philosophy. It’s largely quoted from the <i>Tâɔnàje Pàŋ</i> (<i>Book of Tâɔnà</i>, 2157), the canonical source on her life and teachings.
<p>(Tâɔnà was Mɔłɔ, but the text is cited in its standard Lé reading.)
<p>The concern here is the relationship between the Inner World (<i>nɔŋǎ</i>), the spiritual world which underlies this one and which is the true home of all rational spirits, including human souls, and the World of Death (<i>dòŋǎ</i>), the world we find ourselves living in.
<p>Enlightenment (<i>nɔtǎn</i>) is literally‘inner-knowledge’, i.e. knowledge of <i>nɔŋǎ</i>. But one leaves the mortal world by dying; <i>nɔtǎn</i> is also a word for death. Death is not final if one believes in an immortal soul (<i>hɔ́</i>), but the ambiguity of <i>nɔtǎn </i>colors Lady Tâɔnà’s story.
<blockquote>
<b>Hìnŋáe nàɔ dláe hina łu, éŋ nàɔ hù nɔŋâ re čɛ̀ŋnɛ čor.</b>
<br>Hìnŋáe HON decide SUB PAST / she HON enter in.world DAT always INTENT
<br>Hìnŋáe was her birth name; it and the pronoun <i>éŋ</i> are followed by the royal honorific— she was a princess.
<br><i>Princess Hìnŋáe decided to enter the inner world for good. </i>
<p><b>Mǒ hɔ́je tliŋhás la éŋ nàɔ pà łu.</b>
<br>but spiritual firefly CAUS she HON stop PAST
<br><i>But a firefly spirit stopped her.</i>
<p><b>—Bɛ́ čor ís nàɔ ŋɛ̀ hù nɔŋǎ re má?</b>
<br>which INTENT you HON want enter in.world DAT Q
<br><i>“Why do you wish to enter the inner world?“ </i>
<p><b>Hɔ́je tliŋhás tɔ̌ŋ tɛ́r senɛ hà tur, as dɛ́ŋ ŋír mǐ hibo na dɛ́ŋ tɛ́r senɛ čɔŋ.</b>
<br>spiritual firefly speak glow SUB only on / and NEG possible see that-thing OBJ NEG glow SUB during
<br>Note the restrictive time clauses in each half of the sentence, each with an implied subject (the firefly).
<br><i>The firefly spoke only when it was lit, and when it was unlit it was invisible.</i>
<p><b>—Rǐ dòŋǎ čǎr trǎɔ na.</b>
<br>because death.world tire I OBJ
<br><i>“Because I am tired of the mortal realm.“</i>
<p><b>—Bo pǎe čǎr ís na, dɔ̀n dòŋǎje pǎ.</b>
<br>thing if tire you HON OBJ / therefore mortal be
<br><i>“To be tired of things is mortal.“</i>
<p><b>—Hibo don.</b>
<br>that-thing certainly
<br><i>“That is so.“</i>
<p><b>—Dɔ̀n ís nàɔ hù senɛ ras ɔ̀ŋ pâ dòŋǎ ro. </b>
<br>therefore you HON enter SUB after still be death.world in
<br>The time clause is topicalized.
<br><i>“Therefore, entering, you will still be in the mortal realm. </i>
<p><b>ís nàɔ pǎe ŋɛ̀ hù nɔŋǎ re dɔ̀n čàe drɛ̌ jǎɔ na dɛ́ŋ saɔr dòŋǎ sɛs senɛ čɔŋ.</b>
<br>you HON if want enter in.world DAT therefore must learn do OBJ not leave death.world ABL SUB during
<br>Overall this is an if-then clause. “Without leaving <i>dòŋâ“</i> is expressed as a time clause in the negative.
<br><i>To truly enter the inner world you must learn to do so without leaving the mortal realm.“</i>
<p><b>Bɛ́ krɔ jǎɔ má?</b>
<br>which use do Q
<br><i>“How is this done?“</i>
<p><b>Drɛ̌ hina, ís nàɔ pǎ krɛn mar.</b>
<br>learn SUB / you HON be here now
<br>A sentential object subordinated with <i>hina</i>.
<br><i>“By learning that you are already here.“</i>
<p><b>Dɛ́ŋ hibo sus tɔ̌ŋ mánbo łu, as rǐ dɛ́ŋ ŋír mǐ hibo na dɛ́ŋ tɛ́r senɛ čɔŋ, dɔ̀n dɛ́ŋ ŋír tǎn hina, hibo blɛ́ sǔ saɔr.</b>
<br>NEG that-thing additional say nothing PAST, and because NEG possible see that-thing OBJ NEG glow SUB during, therefore NEG possible know SUB, that.thing remain or leave
<br><i>It said no more, and as it was invisible when not speaking, it was impossible to know if it was there or had gone.</i>
<p><b>Hìnŋáe nàɔ dláe łun na bo mɛ łu.</b>
<br>Hìnŋáe HON decide reflect OBJ thing ABOUT PAST
<br><i>Princess Hìnŋáe resolved to reflect on this. </i>
<p><b>Dɛ́ŋ éŋ nàɔ tǎn jǎɔ nànnèn ro lɔlɔ je trɛ̌nja čɔŋ.</b>
<br>NEG she HON know do palace in crowd of head-fall during
<br><i>She could not do this in a palace, amid the interruptions of other people.</i>
<p><b>éŋ nàɔ saɔrtɔ̌ŋ es innù re łu as hós pùŋ re drûrsàɔ je ór kɔr se łu.</b>
<br>she HON leave-speak her friend DAT PAST and walk river DAT wilderness of beginning mark SUB PAST
<br>The edge of settlement was monster country (<i>drûrsàɔ</i>). There’s very little of this left in the Bé, mainly a few swamps or inhospitable highlands.
<br><i>She said farewell to her friends and walked to the river that marked the beginning of the wilderness. </i>
<p><b>éŋ nàɔ de łàorá na as mɛ̌n ŋǐs na łu.</b>
<br>she HON strip clothes OBJ and discard knife OBJ PAST
<br><i>She removed her clothes and discarded her knife. </i>
<p><b>Plî pùŋ tlɛ́ ta; dɛ́ŋ nîn mánbo na.</b>
<br>ford river across naked STATIVE / NEG bring nothing OBJ
<br><i>She crossed the river naked, bringing nothing with her.</i>
<p><b>éŋ nàɔ blɛ́ jû łuŋ čɔŋ; dɛ́ŋ sɔ mánbo na as dɛ́ŋ bùr łǎ nae mánbo na łu.</b>
<br>she HON stay one year during / NEG eat nothing OBJ and NEG drink water except nothing OBJ PAST
<br><i>She stayed there for a year, eating nothing, drinking nothing but water. </i>
<p><b>éŋ nàɔ tân hina łu, dɛ́ŋ mánbo tǎn lɔ̌n éŋ nàɔ na, rǐ dɛ́ŋ éŋ nàɔ łɔ̂s saɔr dòŋǎ sɛs.</b>
<br>she HON know SUB PAST / NEG nothing know harm she HON OBJ / because NEG she HON permitted leave death.world ABL
<br><i>She knew that she could not be harmed, because she was prevented from leaving the mortal realm.</i>
<p><b>Mǒ dɛ́ŋ lús nɔtǎn na łu.</b>
<br>but NEG find enlightenment OBJ PAST
<br><i>However, she did not find enlightenment. </i>
<p><b>éŋ nàɔ čì hina jû łuŋ ras, trǎɔ rɛŋ kìn his tliŋhás na kle!</b>
<br>she HON exclaim SUB one year after / I should swat that firefly OBJ IMPER
<br><i>After a year she exclaimed, “I should swat that firefly!“</i>
<p><b>Hɔ́je tliŋhás tliŋ éŋ nàɔ héŋ ro łu, ís nàɔ pǎe tân púr!</b>
<br>spiritual firefly blink she HON near at PAST / you HON if know try
<br><i>The firefly blinked next to her: “Try it, if you can!“</i>
</blockquote>
<h4><a name="Nyekhen">The quotable Nyekhen</a></h4>
<a href="http://www.almeopedia.com/Nyekhen">Nyekhen</a> (<b>Nìkɛ́n</b>) was a Krwŋese general— an obscure figure in the Bé, but when I found these lines translated in a Lé source I thought they would make an instructive contrast with <a href="Uyse7.htm#Nyekhen">the corresponding Uyseʔ text</a>.
<p>The translator uses male pronouns— the Bé are perfectly aware that Nyekhen and his culture are male-dominant. But Hyemsurist writings are normally gender-switched: generic <i>nawar</i>‘he’ becomes <b>éŋ </b>‘she’.
<blockquote>
<b>Dǐŋ pǎ trǔŋhɔ́; ŋɛpo la tɛ ŋír prǔn drɔŋ na, mǒ dɛ́ŋ tǎn mɛ̀ŋ ŋɛpo je ho na.</b>
<br>word be evil-spirit / this-thing CAUS man possibly pick.up sword OBJ / but NEG know teach that-thing of use OBJ
<br><i>Words are devils, which may lead a man to pick up a sword; but they can never teach him to use it. </i>
</blockquote>
(Advised by an enemy envoy to surrender)
<blockquote>
<b>Tɛ je dǐŋ pâ hà hun, es drɔŋ pǎe pǎ krɔ̀r ro.</b>
<br>man of word be wind only / his sword if be sheath in
<br><i>A man’s words are just wind, if his sword is sheathed. </i>
</blockquote>
(After someone advocated using a ruse in battle)
<blockquote>
<b>Trǎɔ ho jû hà jâo na. Hibo pǎ, inblû mɛ dláɔ jé pǎ.</b>
<br>I use one trick only OBJ / that.one be / enemy ABOUT more strong be
<br><i>I only use one trick. That trick is to be stronger than the enemy.
<br></i>
</blockquote>
(Asked if he had a backup plan in case a charge failed)
<blockquote>
<b>Rur dò trun.</b>
<br>we.all die future
<br><i>We die. </i>
</blockquote>
(Asked if he ever felt fear)
<blockquote>
<b>ís la nɛ̂ kle, as dɛ́ŋ ís rɛŋ ŋê hibo mɛ.</b>
<br>you CAUS fear IMPER / and NEG you should worry that-thing about
<br>Note the causative without an explicit subject.
<br><i>Cause fear, and you need never worry about that. </i>
<p><b>Ŋír bre drɔŋ na brɔ̀ŋtɛ re, mǒ dɛ́ŋ hibo la pô pǎ inrɛ̀s, bâerè dɛ́ŋ lês je haprùr la pô pǎ dlǐ.</b>
<br>possible give sword OBJ farm-man DAT / but NEG that-thing CAUS he be soldier / same.way NEG feather of turban CAUS he be bird
<br>In this case, respecting local color, the translator has used borrowed <b>haprùr</b>‘turban’ rather than, say, native <b>čô</b>‘hat’.
<br><i>A farmer may be given a sword, but it no more makes him a soldier than a feathered headdress makes him a bird.</i>
<p><b>Tɛ tǎn rɛ̀s trâe dlís pos lɔ na, mǒ pô dláɔ mɔ̀ rɛ̀s trâe čǎŋ kis tɛ je lɔ na.</b>
<br>man know fight in.order.that save his woman OBJ / but he more hard fight in.order.that seize other man of woman OBJ
<br><i>Men will fight to save their women, but will fight harder to seize other men’s. </i>
<p><b>Tɛ je lɔkos pǎ bɛ́ krɔ pô jâɔ inblû dlàɔná čɔŋ drê rɛ̀sbo na se. Slìsnà pǎ nɛ̂nàje— brɔ̀ŋtɛ čɛ̀ŋ tân čeče inblû na tlǒn dɔr na se.</b>
<br>man of worth be which INSTR he do enemy facing during have weapon OBJ SUB / cruel be cowardly / farm-man every know abuse enemy OBJ defeat EARLIER.PAST OBJ SUB
<br><i>The measure of a man is how he faces an armed foe. Cruelty is cowardice: any peasant can abuse the defeated.
<br></i>
<p><b>ís dò ŋǐs krɔ tliŋ sǔ brɔ̀r ro sǔ màɔčìŋ krɔ rɔ̀r łuŋ čɔŋ... ŋɛpo je bɛ́ na ís nɛ̂ má?</b>
<br>you die knife INSTR moment or hour in or old.season INSTR eight<b> </b>year during... this.thing of which OBJ you fear Q
<br><i> To die in a moment or an hour from the blade, or over a decade from old age? Which of these is more to be feared? </i>
</blockquote>
(Before his last battle, told that the enemy had more men)
<blockquote>
<b>Dɔ̀n łéŋ drê rur mɛ dláɔ dòŋàɔ.</b>
<br>therefore they have we ABOUT more corpse
<br><i>Then they will have more corpses. </i>
</blockquote>
<h3><a name="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></h3>
The lexical category may be taken as a prototype— the same root can often be used as verb, noun, and adjective.
<p><b>ɛ</b> is alphabetized after <b>e</b>, <b>ɔ</b> after <b>o</b>.
<p>1354 words
<blockquote><table>
<<tr><td>âe</td> <td>v</td> <td>name, call</td></tr>
<tr><td>âedǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>name [‘name-word’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ajé</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Hake people of Mɔłɔsɔu [Hake Hake]</td></tr>
<tr><td>àn</td> <td>pt</td> <td>honorific for nobles</td></tr>
<tr><td>ân</td> <td>a</td> <td>free</td></tr>
<tr><td>ândɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>not free, oppressed</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ânhɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>a Beic nation between Belesao and Mɔłɔsɔu [‘free coast’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ár</td> <td>v</td> <td>burn</td></tr>
<tr><td>àr</td> <td>pt</td> <td>question particle</td></tr>
<tr><td>áraŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>yam [Tombwe ʔaraŋge]</td></tr>
<tr><td>árkà</td> <td>n</td> <td>ash, ashes</td></tr>
<tr><td>árłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>burnt; brown</td></tr>
<tr><td>ársǐr</td> <td>n</td> <td>caramel</td></tr>
<tr><td>ársǐrtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>Tžuro or Fananaki [‘caramel (colored) man’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>as</td> <td>cj</td> <td>and</td></tr>
<tr><td>bǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>mother</td></tr>
<tr><td>bâe</td> <td>a</td> <td>same; same as</td></tr>
<tr><td>bâedɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>different</td></tr>
<tr><td>bâeôn</td> <td>n</td> <td>a jɔ descended from a recent common ancestor [‘same-ancestor’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bâerè</td> <td>cj</td> <td>just as, in the same way, likewise</td></tr>
<tr><td>bǎmɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>guru, religious teacher [‘mother-teacher’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ban</td> <td>v</td> <td>touch</td></tr>
<tr><td>bàn</td> <td>v</td> <td>hope</td></tr>
<tr><td>bandrás</td> <td>v</td> <td>grope [‘sneak touch’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>banmǎn</td> <td>v</td> <td>rape, sexually assault [‘attack-touch’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>baɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>dog</td></tr>
<tr><td>bàɔ</td> <td>q</td> <td>five [fusion of bɛ̀s jû ‘another one’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bǎɔsa</td> <td>n</td> <td>stripcorn wine</td></tr>
<tr><td>bàr</td> <td>q</td> <td>six [fusion of bɛ̀s rò ‘another two’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bǎr</td> <td>n</td> <td>mommy</td></tr>
<tr><td>bǎrtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a man too attached to his mother</td></tr>
<tr><td>bàs</td> <td>q</td> <td>plus five (combining form)</td></tr>
<tr><td>bé</td> <td>a</td> <td>great; used as an ethnonym for anyone in the Beic zone</td></tr>
<tr><td>béjan</td> <td>n</td> <td>convention, parliament [‘great council’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Bélésàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the name of the country [‘great Lé country’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Béłas</td> <td>n</td> <td>the ocean, esp. that north of the Bé [‘great sea’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bésɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>large city, metropolis</td></tr>
<tr><td>bétlìn</td> <td>n</td> <td>empire</td></tr>
<tr><td>Bétlu</td> <td>n</td> <td>Bé religion </td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ́</td> <td>pr</td> <td>which</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ̀</td> <td>v</td> <td>drop, fall</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ́bo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>what</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ̀hoŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>sit down, get down, relax [‘drop-sit’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ́lo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>who</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ́mǎs</td> <td>n</td> <td>afternoon [‘falling sun’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ́n</td> <td>v</td> <td>lack, run out, need</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ̂n</td> <td>n</td> <td>male cousin</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ́nɛ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>when</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ̀nɛ̀</td> <td>q</td> <td>56 [‘across another’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ́nèn</td> <td>pr</td> <td>where</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ̀pri</td> <td>v</td> <td>lie down, get down; go to sleep [‘drop-lie’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ̀s</td> <td>a</td> <td>another; extra</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɛ́s</td> <td>pr</td> <td>whose</td></tr>
<tr><td>bi</td> <td>pt</td> <td>prefix forming fractions: bičɛr 1/4</td></tr>
<tr><td>bíbi</td> <td>n</td> <td>puppy; a weak or cringing man</td></tr>
<tr><td>bín</td> <td>n</td> <td>soot; (colloq. or in compounds) ink; write</td></tr>
<tr><td>bínłǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>ink [calque on Uyseʔ myulnwet]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bínłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>writing [‘write-study’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bís</td> <td>v</td> <td>play a game; game</td></tr>
<tr><td>blàe</td> <td>n</td> <td>tail</td></tr>
<tr><td>blâŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>egg</td></tr>
<tr><td>bláɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>horn</td></tr>
<tr><td>blâr</td> <td>n</td> <td>ass, butt, buttocks</td></tr>
<tr><td>blɛ́</td> <td>v</td> <td>stay, remain</td></tr>
<tr><td>blɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>unlikely, implausible</td></tr>
<tr><td>blɛ́tɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>‘old sir’; an older unmarried man within a jɔ</td></tr>
<tr><td>blû</td> <td>v</td> <td>oppose, counter, fight back</td></tr>
<tr><td>bluŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a spice, something like cardamom, also used as a medicine</td></tr>
<tr><td>bo</td> <td>n</td> <td>object, thing</td></tr>
<tr><td>bó</td> <td>v</td> <td>watch, observe</td></tr>
<tr><td>bò</td> <td>n</td> <td>a red-stalked grass mostly used as decoration</td></tr>
<tr><td>bǒ</td> <td>v</td> <td>condole (event in acc., person condoled with in dat.)<br/>bǒ ís re my condolences</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɔ̀</td> <td>a</td> <td>big, large</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɔ̌</td> <td>a</td> <td>ugly</td></tr>
<tr><td>bǒdǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>condolences</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɔ̀s</td> <td>q</td> <td>plus six (combining form)</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɔ̀sò</td> <td>a</td> <td>expensive [‘big-money’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɔr</td> <td>n</td> <td>bottom, base</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɔrbɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>servile, abject, subservient</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɔrje</td> <td>a</td> <td>lower, inferior; humble</td></tr>
<tr><td>bɔrná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>on the bottom of, under, below</td></tr>
<tr><td>brǎ</td> <td>v</td> <td>take, grab</td></tr>
<tr><td>bràe</td> <td>n</td> <td>law</td></tr>
<tr><td>braŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>remember</td></tr>
<tr><td>bre</td> <td>v</td> <td>give</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>meat, muscle</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɛ́</td> <td>a</td> <td>sharp, canny</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>machine, device</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɛ̀ŋłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>mechanics, engineering [‘machine-study’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɔ̀ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>clearing, plot; farm or rural village— one family’s plot or settlement</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɔ̀ŋlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>peasant, farmer (woman or default)</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɔ̀ŋro</td> <td>a</td> <td>public, (already) known [‘in the clearing’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɔ̀ŋtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>peasant male</td></tr>
<tr><td>brɔ̀r</td> <td>q, n</td> <td>one eighth; a period of 1.5 hours (i.e. 1/8 of daytime); length measurement of 1/7 kráɔ, 2.18 mm </td></tr>
<tr><td>bròs</td> <td>n</td> <td>lizard; name given to the rebels in the 3040s civil war</td></tr>
<tr><td>bru</td> <td>a</td> <td>lame, crippled</td></tr>
<tr><td>brù</td> <td>v</td> <td>kill</td></tr>
<tr><td>bu</td> <td>cl</td> <td>comitative (with, accompanied by, carrying)</td></tr>
<tr><td>bú</td> <td>a</td> <td>red</td></tr>
<tr><td>búçín</td> <td>n</td> <td>salmon [‘red fish’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bun</td> <td>v</td> <td>serve, attent, wait on</td></tr>
<tr><td>bún</td> <td>n</td> <td>foot</td></tr>
<tr><td>bùŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>chameleon— a type of lizardwith great powers of camouflage; a deceitful person</td></tr>
<tr><td>búŋòs</td> <td>n</td> <td>a type of caterpillar highly poisonous to the touch [‘red caterpillar’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>bùr</td> <td>v</td> <td>drink, swallow<br/>bùr sa na drink liquor, get drunk</td></tr>
<tr><td>bús</td> <td>v</td> <td>draw</td></tr>
<tr><td>búsbo</td> <td>n</td> <td>drawing</td></tr>
<tr><td>ča</td> <td>v</td> <td>struggle, labor, make an effort</td></tr>
<tr><td>čáe</td> <td>v</td> <td>smile</td></tr>
<tr><td>čàe</td> <td>md</td> <td>must, have to; obligatory, required</td></tr>
<tr><td>čáečáe</td> <td>a</td> <td>obsequious, falsely cheerful [‘smile-smile’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čaelu</td> <td>n</td> <td>tea [‘tea beverage’, the first syllable is Uyseʔ]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čáŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>hungry; be hungry</td></tr>
<tr><td>čǎŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>seize, capture; loot; imprison</td></tr>
<tr><td>čǎŋčó</td> <td>n</td> <td>prison, jail [‘seizure house’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čào</td> <td>n</td> <td>blood</td></tr>
<tr><td>čàorǔ </td> <td>n</td> <td>ruby [‘blood jewel’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čàosí</td> <td>v</td> <td>menstruate [‘piss blood’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čǎr</td> <td>v</td> <td>drag; bore, tire</td></tr>
<tr><td>če</td> <td>v</td> <td>damage, injure, wound</td></tr>
<tr><td>čé</td> <td>a</td> <td>green</td></tr>
<tr><td>čě</td> <td>v</td> <td>accept, receive</td></tr>
<tr><td>čéhás</td> <td>n</td> <td>an iridescent green beetle; a woman’s name [‘green-beetle’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čeče</td> <td>v</td> <td>torment, torture, abuse</td></tr>
<tr><td>čén</td> <td>n</td> <td>back</td></tr>
<tr><td>čérǔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>jade [‘green jewel’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čětɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>husband [‘accepted one’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>četrǔŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>punish</td></tr>
<tr><td>četrǔŋŋâ</td> <td>n</td> <td>hell [‘punishment realm’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>root</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̌</td> <td>n</td> <td>a gerbil-like rodent, very busy, numerous, and easily caught</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̌hǎs</td> <td>n</td> <td>an amusing but useless fellow; boy toy [‘gerbil-dude’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ́n</td> <td>v</td> <td>offer, present; propose (as a candidate or spouse)</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛnɛ̀</td> <td>q</td> <td>48 [‘across hand’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>tool, utensil</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>q</td> <td>every, all</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̀ŋbo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>everything</td></tr>
<tr><td>Čɛ̀ŋhɔ́</td> <td>n</td> <td>the All-Soul or universal soul (the Divinity in orthodox theology)</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̀ŋhon</td> <td>a</td> <td>having all attributes (said of Divinity)</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̀ŋlɔ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>everyone, everybody</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̀ŋnɛ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>always</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̀ŋnèn</td> <td>pr</td> <td>everywhere</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛr</td> <td>n/q</td> <td>hand; four; length measurement of 4 kráɔ = 6.984 cm </td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛs</td> <td>q</td> <td>plus four (combining form)</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɛ̀s</td> <td>a</td> <td>tired of being pregnant</td></tr>
<tr><td>či</td> <td>v</td> <td>tick, click</td></tr>
<tr><td>čǐ</td> <td>a</td> <td>fat</td></tr>
<tr><td>čì</td> <td>v</td> <td>shout, exclaim</td></tr>
<tr><td>čǐ</td> <td>v</td> <td>itch, aggravate</td></tr>
<tr><td>čibrɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>clock [‘tick machine’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čǐčǐ</td> <td>n</td> <td>louse [‘itch-itch’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čiŋ</td> <td>q</td> <td>half</td></tr>
<tr><td>čín</td> <td>n</td> <td>fish</td></tr>
<tr><td>čìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>season, time; situation, state of affairs</td></tr>
<tr><td>čǐr</td> <td>a</td> <td>chubby, portly [‘fat’ + dim.]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čo</td> <td>v</td> <td>sink, immerse</td></tr>
<tr><td>čó</td> <td>n</td> <td>house</td></tr>
<tr><td>čǒ </td> <td>v</td> <td>splash; chatter</td></tr>
<tr><td>čô</td> <td>n</td> <td>cap, hat</td></tr>
<tr><td>čódin</td> <td>n</td> <td>street [‘between houses’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čóhù</td> <td>n</td> <td>door [‘house entry’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čołu</td> <td>a</td> <td>sunken</td></tr>
<tr><td>čóná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>(towards) home [‘house direction’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɔŋ</td> <td>pp</td> <td>during (through the entirety of a time period)</td></tr>
<tr><td>čɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>cousin: older female in same age cohort within jɔ</td></tr>
<tr><td>čor</td> <td>cl</td> <td>purpose case marker</td></tr>
<tr><td>čór</td> <td>n</td> <td>hut, cabin [‘little house’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čú</td> <td>a</td> <td>still, calm; a river in Belesao</td></tr>
<tr><td>čù</td> <td>v</td> <td>suck</td></tr>
<tr><td>čù</td> <td>n</td> <td>an unknown plant referred to in the Ùrlǔ </td></tr>
<tr><td>čúdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>slightly anxious or upset [‘not-still’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>čun</td> <td>v</td> <td>perceive; read</td></tr>
<tr><td>čùŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>throw, toss</td></tr>
<tr><td>čùŋbís</td> <td>n</td> <td>a game involving throwing pebbles at a target</td></tr>
<tr><td>čùŋké</td> <td>n</td> <td>artillery (as a section of the army)</td></tr>
<tr><td>čûr</td> <td>n</td> <td>revenge<br/>jǎɔ čûr na take revenge (victim in dative)</td></tr>
<tr><td>čus</td> <td>v</td> <td>shoot (arrows), fling</td></tr>
<tr><td>da</td> <td>v</td> <td>orate, give a speech</td></tr>
<tr><td>dá</td> <td>v</td> <td>like, enjoy</td></tr>
<tr><td>dà</td> <td>n</td> <td>leaf</td></tr>
<tr><td>dabà</td> <td>v</td> <td>converse, talk [redup. of da]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dàčɛ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>plate, dish [‘leaf-tool’, i.e. a leaf used as a plate]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dadǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>conversation, talk, speech</td></tr>
<tr><td>dàe</td> <td>n</td> <td>story, tale</td></tr>
<tr><td>dâe</td> <td>a</td> <td>best, top, élite</td></tr>
<tr><td>dán</td> <td>n</td> <td>(raw) clay</td></tr>
<tr><td>dàn</td> <td>n</td> <td>ceramic, fired clay</td></tr>
<tr><td>daŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>cut</td></tr>
<tr><td>daɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>bright; white</td></tr>
<tr><td>dǎɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>glory</td></tr>
<tr><td>daɔhès</td> <td>n</td> <td>steel [‘white metal’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dáɔr</td> <td>v</td> <td>sculpt, carve</td></tr>
<tr><td>dáɔrbo</td> <td>n</td> <td>sculpture</td></tr>
<tr><td>dǎr</td> <td>n</td> <td>girl (above 11, unmarried), maiden</td></tr>
<tr><td>dás</td> <td>a</td> <td>together</td></tr>
<tr><td>dásčó</td> <td>n</td> <td>nunnery, monastery [‘together house’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dásłó </td> <td>n</td> <td>military nationalistm of 3500s</td></tr>
<tr><td>dáslɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>nun</td></tr>
<tr><td>dásnâr</td> <td>v</td> <td>(act in) harmony, cooperate; name of an early dynasty [‘work together’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dástɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>monk</td></tr>
<tr><td>de</td> <td>v</td> <td>strip, peel; remove, take off (clothing)</td></tr>
<tr><td>desú</td> <td>n</td> <td>stripcorn [‘strip-grain’, as the covering must be removed]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dè</td> <td>v</td> <td>come or go by boat</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɛ</td> <td>cl</td> <td>not</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>compassion, mercy</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɛ́ŋ</td> <td>pt</td> <td>no, not</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɛ́ŋrɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>a young girl given to contradicting her elders [‘no-girl’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dí</td> <td>v</td> <td>laugh</td></tr>
<tr><td>dì</td> <td>a</td> <td>wise</td></tr>
<tr><td>dìdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>unwise, imprudent</td></tr>
<tr><td>díje</td> <td>a</td> <td>funny, amusing [‘of laughs’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>din</td> <td>pp</td> <td>between, amid, among</td></tr>
<tr><td>dǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>word; speech, term, expression</td></tr>
<tr><td>díŋbís</td> <td>n</td> <td>word game, esp. a guessing game</td></tr>
<tr><td>Dìpàŋ </td> <td>n</td> <td>the Book of Wisdom, orthodox synthesis by Línɛ</td></tr>
<tr><td>dítɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>joke [‘laugh-say’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dláe</td> <td>v</td> <td>decide, commit</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlán</td> <td>v</td> <td>foresee, foretell</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlánłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>foreseen, predicted</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlánłudɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>unforeseen, unpredicted, unexpected</td></tr>
<tr><td>dláo</td> <td>adv</td> <td>more than; very</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>face</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlǎɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>slow</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlǎɔlɛ̌r</td> <td>a</td> <td>dim-witted; tongue-tied [‘slow tongue’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlàɔná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>facing; face to face; directly</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlàɔsê</td> <td>n</td> <td>painted face decoration of Jɔ́sists [‘face-paint’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlé</td> <td>n</td> <td>iliu</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlɛ̀</td> <td>a</td> <td>soft</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlɛ̀n</td> <td>n</td> <td>conduct, behavior, manners</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlɛ̌n</td> <td>v</td> <td>reveal, show</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlɛ̌ntɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>interpret; translate into Lé</td></tr>
<tr><td>Dlɛ́s</td> <td>n</td> <td>a god of the mountains, thus of wildness and unconventionality, depicted as seductive and anarchic</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlɛ̂s</td> <td>v</td> <td>sew</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlǐ</td> <td>n</td> <td>bird</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlídi</td> <td>n</td> <td>spider</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlin</td> <td>a</td> <td>busy, active, crowded</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlindɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>not busy or crowded, inactive</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlîŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>mud, slime</td></tr>
<tr><td>dliŋlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>promiscuous woman, ‘man-izer’ [‘mud woman’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlís</td> <td>v</td> <td>save, rescue</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlǐs</td> <td>v</td> <td>split, divide</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlǐsbo</td> <td>n</td> <td>wall [‘divider’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlǐsłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>split, divided</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlò</td> <td>v</td> <td>vomit</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlòje</td> <td>a</td> <td>disgusting, sickening [‘vomitous’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlɔ́r</td> <td>v</td> <td>pull; interpret, deduce</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlùn</td> <td>v</td> <td>flow; current; drift (downstream)</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlùnná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>downriver</td></tr>
<tr><td>dlur</td> <td>v</td> <td>rub, stroke</td></tr>
<tr><td>dó</td> <td>n</td> <td>lime, chalk</td></tr>
<tr><td>dò</td> <td>v</td> <td>death, die</td></tr>
<tr><td>Dò</td> <td>n</td> <td>the old god of death</td></tr>
<tr><td>dółu</td> <td>n</td> <td>parchment [dółu trír ‘limed (i.e. not tanned) hide’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dòłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>dead</td></tr>
<tr><td>don</td> <td>a</td> <td>sure, certain</td></tr>
<tr><td>dòná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>west [‘sunset direction’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dòŋǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>this world, Almea [‘death world’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dòŋàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>corpse [‘die-body’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dòŋǎje</td> <td>a</td> <td>worldly, earthly, non-spiritual, mortal</td></tr>
<tr><td>dòsɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>cemetary, funerary complex [‘death city’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>dedicated, loyal</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɔ́</td> <td>n</td> <td>clitoris</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɔdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>disloyal</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɔ̀n</td> <td>cj</td> <td>therefore, thus</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɔr</td> <td>cl</td> <td>far previous time</td></tr>
<tr><td>dɔrčìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the past [‘previous season’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>drae</td> <td>cl</td> <td>in a moment, about to</td></tr>
<tr><td>drán</td> <td>v</td> <td>extend, stretch</td></tr>
<tr><td>dránłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>extende, stretched</td></tr>
<tr><td>Dránłułó</td> <td>n</td> <td>Sâɔist school emphasizing sex worship and technique</td></tr>
<tr><td>drào</td> <td>pr</td> <td>we few</td></tr>
<tr><td>drás</td> <td>v</td> <td>sneak</td></tr>
<tr><td>drìs</td> <td>pr</td> <td>you few</td></tr>
<tr><td>drě</td> <td>n</td> <td>vine</td></tr>
<tr><td>drê</td> <td>v</td> <td>own, possess, have</td></tr>
<tr><td>drêdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>ascetic, modest [calque on Uyseʔ syalen]</td></tr>
<tr><td>drèŋ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>those few</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɛ̌</td> <td>v</td> <td>learn <br/>drɛ̌ jî na learn to swim</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɛ́s</td> <td>a</td> <td>skillful, skilled, able</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɛ́sdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>maladroit, clumsy, unskilled</td></tr>
<tr><td>drin</td> <td>v</td> <td>freeze</td></tr>
<tr><td>drinje</td> <td>a</td> <td>frozen</td></tr>
<tr><td>drinłǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>ice [‘frozen water’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>drintlù</td> <td>v</td> <td>snow [‘freeze-rain’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dró</td> <td>a</td> <td>mature, adult</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɔ̌</td> <td>v</td> <td>dance</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɔ̌n</td> <td>v</td> <td>hold, keep; maintain, aver</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɔ̌nčɛ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>fork [‘hold-tool’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɔ̌nké</td> <td>n</td> <td>defense garrison [‘holding group’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɔŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>sword</td></tr>
<tr><td>drɔŋplè</td> <td>n</td> <td>mercenary [‘sell sword’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>drù</td> <td>v</td> <td>carry; hang (things)</td></tr>
<tr><td>drǔ </td> <td>n</td> <td>tree cat, a small feline predator (cf. V. arkoša)</td></tr>
<tr><td>drùku</td> <td>n</td> <td>strap, sling (held over the shoulder for carrying things) [‘hang-band’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>drûr</td> <td>n</td> <td>monster</td></tr>
<tr><td>drûrsàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>wilderness, virgin forest [‘monster-country’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>dù</td> <td>v</td> <td>shiver; orgasm (of women)</td></tr>
<tr><td>è</td> <td>intj</td> <td>ouch! ow!; oy</td></tr>
<tr><td>éŋ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>she, her</td></tr>
<tr><td>es</td> <td>pr</td> <td>her, hers</td></tr>
<tr><td>ɛ</td> <td>pt</td> <td>uh (prolongs a turn or marks dispreferreds)</td></tr>
<tr><td>hà</td> <td>adv</td> <td>just, only</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎ</td> <td>v</td> <td>bloom, blossom; blaze</td></tr>
<tr><td>hàbɔr</td> <td>n</td> <td>a man with a nice body but an ugly face [‘only below’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>háčà</td> <td>n</td> <td>truca oil</td></tr>
<tr><td>háe</td> <td>v</td> <td>surprise</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎe</td> <td>n</td> <td>mind, thought</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎeje</td> <td>n</td> <td>rational, rationalist, intellectual, pragmatic</td></tr>
<tr><td>Hǎełó</td> <td>n</td> <td>pragmatic or rationalist school of philosophy [‘mind school’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎenâr</td> <td>v</td> <td>imagine, create [‘mind-make’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎenârłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>imaginary, fantastic, unreal</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎerɛn</td> <td>v</td> <td>understand, grasp [‘mind-follow’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hán</td> <td>n</td> <td>meet</td></tr>
<tr><td>hàn</td> <td>v</td> <td>hate</td></tr>
<tr><td>háɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>elder (of a family); chief (of a gang)</td></tr>
<tr><td>hàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>parrot; name of a river and the people inhabiting its valley</td></tr>
<tr><td>hàɔhór</td> <td>n</td> <td>patriarch [Uyseʔ hyauhyor ‘grandfather’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Hàɔní</td> <td>n</td> <td>the capital of Hàoráŋ</td></tr>
<tr><td>Hàɔráŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a nation in the Hàɔ valley</td></tr>
<tr><td>hàɔsú</td> <td>n</td> <td>top, blouse [Uyseʔ hyausu]</td></tr>
<tr><td>háɔtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>elder’s husband</td></tr>
<tr><td>haprùr</td> <td>n</td> <td>turban [Uyseʔ hafrul]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hàr</td> <td>a</td> <td>just, fair</td></tr>
<tr><td>hàrdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>unjust, unfair</td></tr>
<tr><td>hás</td> <td>n</td> <td>beetle</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎs</td> <td>n</td> <td>nose; (slang) dude, guy</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎskɔ̀s</td> <td>a</td> <td>gay, homosexual (of males) [‘above a dude’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǎskɔ̀stɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>gay man</td></tr>
<tr><td>hé</td> <td>n</td> <td>goods, merchandise</td></tr>
<tr><td>Héjùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>a city at the confluence of the Lɛn and the Čú [‘goods place’, i.e. ‘trading post’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hénèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>warehouse [‘goods building’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>héŋ</td> <td>pp</td> <td>near</td></tr>
<tr><td>héŋje</td> <td>a</td> <td>near, nearby</td></tr>
<tr><td>héŋjɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>armor strengthened with metal bands [‘infantry armor’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>héŋké</td> <td>n</td> <td>infantry, sword and spear component of an army [‘near group’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>héŋmǐ</td> <td>v</td> <td>look over, size up; flirt (of women) [‘near-see’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>héŋnâr</td> <td>n</td> <td>care, attention [‘near work’]<br/>jǎɔ héŋnâr na work or act with great care</td></tr>
<tr><td>hés</td> <td>n</td> <td>metal ore</td></tr>
<tr><td>hès</td> <td>n</td> <td>(refined) metal</td></tr>
<tr><td>hétáo</td> <td>n</td> <td>trade, commerce [‘move goods’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛ́</td> <td>a</td> <td>familiar</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>coast</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛ̀bús</td> <td>n</td> <td>maritime chart; large-scale map [‘coast drawing’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛ́n</td> <td>n</td> <td>inner peace, serenity [Uy. hyem]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛ́nèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>one’s haunts; neighborhood [‘familiar place’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Hɛ́nsɔ̀r</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Hyemsur religion or philosophy</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>count</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>finger</td></tr>
<tr><td>Herdúr</td> <td>n</td> <td>Verduria [Keb. Verdura]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛs</td> <td>n</td> <td>scar</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɛ́s</td> <td>n</td> <td>bark (of tree)</td></tr>
<tr><td>hí</td> <td>a</td> <td>tight; 40</td></tr>
<tr><td>hì</td> <td>n</td> <td>cane, reed; pen</td></tr>
<tr><td>hibo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>that thing</td></tr>
<tr><td>hídà</td> <td>n</td> <td>a fast-growing reed grown for biofuel</td></tr>
<tr><td>hìn</td> <td>n</td> <td>gold</td></tr>
<tr><td>hina</td> <td>pr</td> <td>that</td></tr>
<tr><td>hir</td> <td>pr</td> <td>that person</td></tr>
<tr><td>Hír</td> <td>n</td> <td>one of the old gods, associated with wisdom</td></tr>
<tr><td>hír</td> <td>n</td> <td>omen, sign [from Hír]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hîr</td> <td>v</td> <td>need (subj = object needed, dat = who needs it)</td></tr>
<tr><td>his</td> <td>q</td> <td>that</td></tr>
<tr><td>hisdǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the former; what was said a moment ago [‘those words’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ho</td> <td>v</td> <td>use, employ</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǒ</td> <td>adv</td> <td>less than; not very</td></tr>
<tr><td>hǒho</td> <td>adv</td> <td>much less than; least</td></tr>
<tr><td>hon</td> <td>n</td> <td>attribute, property</td></tr>
<tr><td>hón</td> <td>v</td> <td>expand, swell</td></tr>
<tr><td>hòn</td> <td>n</td> <td>silk</td></tr>
<tr><td>hónbɔr</td> <td>n</td> <td>testicles [‘under penis’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hóndaŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>geld (of animals); cut or damage the penis as a punishment</td></tr>
<tr><td>hónmo</td> <td>n</td> <td>penis [‘expanding organ’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hónplè</td> <td>n</td> <td>male prostitute [‘sell penis’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Hònpó</td> <td>n</td> <td>the silk islands off Mǎɔráŋ</td></tr>
<tr><td>hôŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>multicolored</td></tr>
<tr><td>hôŋhàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a type of parrot [‘multicolored parrot’]<br/>jǎɔ hôŋhàɔ na babble, prattle</td></tr>
<tr><td>hór</td> <td>n</td> <td>dick, cock; (slang) dude, man [dim. of ‘penis’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hós</td> <td>v</td> <td>walk, come or go by foot</td></tr>
<tr><td>hóstɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>greet, introduce (a speech or article) [‘come-speak’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɔ́</td> <td>n</td> <td>spirit, soul</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɔ́je</td> <td>a</td> <td>spiritual, immaterial</td></tr>
<tr><td>Honslīnár</td> <td>n</td> <td>Neinuoi [Uyseʔ Ħomswiʔnyounar]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɔŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>be sitting, be relaxed</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɔ́r</td> <td>v</td> <td>choose; order, ask for</td></tr>
<tr><td>hɔ́rłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>chosen; one’s chosen goddess</td></tr>
<tr><td>hù</td> <td>v</td> <td>enter, join; entry; occur (ideas, events); object takes dative</td></tr>
<tr><td>huhín</td> <td>n</td> <td>pump [Uyseʔ fuħin]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hùlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>wife [‘enter (i.e. marry)-woman’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hun</td> <td>n</td> <td>breeze, light wind</td></tr>
<tr><td>hùn</td> <td>pt</td> <td>reflexive prefix</td></tr>
<tr><td>hùnčɛ́n</td> <td>v</td> <td>present oneself; flirt (of men)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Hunhɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>the leading city of Nérsàɔ [‘windy coast’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hùnsaɔr</td> <td>v</td> <td>regret, repent [‘leave oneself’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hùnu</td> <td>n</td> <td>government, administration [Keb. vunu]</td></tr>
<tr><td>húŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>smoke</td></tr>
<tr><td>hur</td> <td>v</td> <td>breathe, breath [‘little wind’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hùro</td> <td>a</td> <td>by marriage, -in-law [‘in entrance (i.e. marriage)’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>hùs</td> <td>a</td> <td>weak, fragile, wimpy (as a female)</td></tr>
<tr><td>í</td> <td>a</td> <td>thin, narrow</td></tr>
<tr><td>ì</td> <td>intj</td> <td>hello!<br/>jǎɔ ì na greet</td></tr>
<tr><td>in</td> <td>pt</td> <td>member of, person who</td></tr>
<tr><td>inbandrás</td> <td>n</td> <td>groper, a man who touches too much or inappropriately</td></tr>
<tr><td>inbédɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>sage, saint, especially in Hyemsur [‘person of great compassion’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inblû</td> <td>n</td> <td>enemy, opponent [‘oppose-person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inbràe</td> <td>n</td> <td>lawyer [‘law person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inbraŋ </td> <td>n</td> <td>rememberer (in ancient times, an assistant who remembered entire texts for you); scribe</td></tr>
<tr><td>inbun</td> <td>n</td> <td>servant [‘serve person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inhéŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>infantry soldier [‘near person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>student, novice, apprentice</td></tr>
<tr><td>injɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>member of the same jɔ</td></tr>
<tr><td>injǔŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>gangster, bandit, pirate</td></tr>
<tr><td>inkú</td> <td>n</td> <td>grape wine [Keb. ingu]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inmán</td> <td>n</td> <td>philosopher [‘wise person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inmɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>teacher [‘teach-person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>innà</td> <td>n</td> <td>friend [‘heart-person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>innâr</td> <td>n</td> <td>craftsperson, artisan [‘craft-person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>innù</td> <td>n</td> <td>lover, concubine [‘love-person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inplè</td> <td>n</td> <td>vendor, seller</td></tr>
<tr><td>inplɛ́s</td> <td>n</td> <td>thief, robber, burglar [‘steal person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>inprãr</td> <td>n</td> <td>criminal, culprit, villain</td></tr>
<tr><td>inrɛn</td> <td>n</td> <td>follower; believer</td></tr>
<tr><td>inrɛ̀s</td> <td>n</td> <td>fighter; warrior, soldier (of any branch) [‘fight person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>insîbó</td> <td>n</td> <td>spy [‘spy person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>insòŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>archer [‘far person’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>insùŋdlán</td> <td>n</td> <td>geomancer</td></tr>
<tr><td>intáo</td> <td>n</td> <td>trader, merchant</td></tr>
<tr><td>intùn</td> <td>n</td> <td>a man who always seems to be fighting other men [‘quarreler’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>íŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>waist</td></tr>
<tr><td>îr</td> <td>pt</td> <td>general honorific</td></tr>
<tr><td>ís</td> <td>pr</td> <td>you (singular)</td></tr>
<tr><td>is</td> <td>pr</td> <td>your (singular)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ìsu</td> <td>n</td> <td>a god, associated with beauty, youth, and innocence</td></tr>
<tr><td>ìsuje</td> <td>a</td> <td>having the delicate beauty and hesitant manner associated with early (male) youth</td></tr>
<tr><td>ja</td> <td>v</td> <td>fall or hit suddenly (e.g. branches against face)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jâ</td> <td>v</td> <td>cheat</td></tr>
<tr><td>jàfà</td> <td>n</td> <td>an aromatic herb, proof against insects</td></tr>
<tr><td>jǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>niece (daugher of a sister)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jàe</td> <td>n</td> <td>lightning</td></tr>
<tr><td>jan</td> <td>n</td> <td>council, meeting</td></tr>
<tr><td>jàn</td> <td>v</td> <td>appoint; choose (for a task) (task uses purposive)</td></tr>
<tr><td>janlo</td> <td>n</td> <td>councilwoman, member of parliament</td></tr>
<tr><td>Jansɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>capital of Belesao [‘meeting city’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jantló</td> <td>n</td> <td>president</td></tr>
<tr><td>jaŋ</td> <td>q</td> <td>one third</td></tr>
<tr><td>jáŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>shocking, outrageous</td></tr>
<tr><td>jàɔ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>we two</td></tr>
<tr><td>jǎɔ</td> <td>v</td> <td>do, act like (verbalizer); cook</td></tr>
<tr><td>jâo</td> <td>n</td> <td>trick, ruse</td></tr>
<tr><td>jàr</td> <td>n</td> <td>gallene (type of turkey)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jás</td> <td>n</td> <td>ginger</td></tr>
<tr><td>jǎsáŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>niece’s daughter [‘niece-daughter’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>je</td> <td>cl</td> <td>of, belonging to</td></tr>
<tr><td>jé</td> <td>a</td> <td>strong, strength</td></tr>
<tr><td>jédɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>compassionate strength (of an ideal warrior)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jéŋ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>those two; both</td></tr>
<tr><td>jês</td> <td>n</td> <td>right side; the right thumb; 32</td></tr>
<tr><td>jêsje</td> <td>a</td> <td>right-hand; on the right</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>sand</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>nawr leather; armor</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɛ̂n</td> <td>a</td> <td>kind, nice</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɛ̂ndɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>unkind, rude</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɛ̀s</td> <td>v</td> <td>visit, go see, meet with (+dat)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jí</td> <td>v</td> <td>put, set, hand over</td></tr>
<tr><td>jì</td> <td>pt</td> <td>expresses surprise or appreciation</td></tr>
<tr><td>jî</td> <td>v</td> <td>swim</td></tr>
<tr><td>jîjùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>swimming hole, swimming pool [‘swim place’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jin</td> <td>a</td> <td>high, noble</td></tr>
<tr><td>Jǐn</td> <td>n</td> <td>chief of the old gods</td></tr>
<tr><td>jinlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>noblewoman, landlady [‘high woman’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jinnèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>mansion, noblewoman’s residence or palace [‘noble building’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jintràŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>empress [‘high queen’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Jíŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>an ambitious and haughty goddess</td></tr>
<tr><td>jîr</td> <td>v</td> <td>ask</td></tr>
<tr><td>jîrdǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>question</td></tr>
<tr><td>jís</td> <td>pr</td> <td>you two</td></tr>
<tr><td>jo</td> <td>n</td> <td>jaguar (type of large predatory cat)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Joní</td> <td>n</td> <td>a city on the Lɛn [‘jaguar gate’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>joŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>sweet, sugary [originally the word for sugarcane]</td></tr>
<tr><td>joŋhì</td> <td>n</td> <td>sugarcane (a type of reed with a sweet core)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jotú</td> <td>n</td> <td>rifter [‘jaguar people’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>family (an elder, her descendants, and their spouses); also used for temples, army units, gangs</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔčɛ̌</td> <td>v</td> <td>marry (for females); induct (into a gang or institution) [‘band accept’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔhù</td> <td>v</td> <td>marry (for males; female takes dat), marriage; be inducted into (a gang or institution) [‘band entry’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>female family member</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔ̀ŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>smart, clever</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔr</td> <td>n</td> <td>neck</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔ́r</td> <td>a</td> <td>previous</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔ́rnɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>yesterday [‘previous day’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔs</td> <td>n</td> <td>hair</td></tr>
<tr><td>Jɔ́s</td> <td>n</td> <td>the supreme deity in Jɔ́sism [from Linaic]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Jɔ́stlu</td> <td>n</td> <td>Jɔ́sism</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔ̌s</td> <td>n</td> <td>front</td></tr>
<tr><td>jɔ̌sná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>in front of, before</td></tr>
<tr><td>ju</td> <td>a</td> <td>dry</td></tr>
<tr><td>jû</td> <td>q</td> <td>one</td></tr>
<tr><td>jučìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the dry season</td></tr>
<tr><td>judà</td> <td>n</td> <td>paper [‘dry leaf’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>judrɛ̌</td> <td>n</td> <td>rope [‘dry vine’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jûje</td> <td>a</td> <td>only, sole</td></tr>
<tr><td>jûłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>united; federal, national</td></tr>
<tr><td>jun</td> <td>a</td> <td>natural, normal, to be expected (even if not typical)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jùn</td> <td>v</td> <td>be standing, be erect</td></tr>
<tr><td>jûn</td> <td>n</td> <td>type of mushroom; cock, dick; asshole, prick</td></tr>
<tr><td>jundɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>unusual, strange, abnormal</td></tr>
<tr><td>júŋ</td> <td>q</td> <td>some, a few</td></tr>
<tr><td>jǔŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>gang, band; (archaic) wild, lawless</td></tr>
<tr><td>júŋbo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>something</td></tr>
<tr><td>júŋhon</td> <td>a</td> <td>particular, individual; (of deities) specific, non-universal [‘some attributes’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>júŋlɔ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>someone, somebody</td></tr>
<tr><td>júŋnɛ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>sometime, occasionally</td></tr>
<tr><td>júŋnèn</td> <td>pr</td> <td>somewhere</td></tr>
<tr><td>jùr</td> <td>q</td> <td>three</td></tr>
<tr><td>jûs</td> <td>q</td> <td>plus one (combining form)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>camp, place dedicated to an activity; neighborhood (of a city)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jùs</td> <td>q</td> <td>plus three (combining form)</td></tr>
<tr><td>jùsčó</td> <td>n</td> <td>inn, hotel [‘camp-house’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>jûhɛ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>left little finger; (v) point [‘one-finger’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kà</td> <td>n</td> <td>dirt, soil</td></tr>
<tr><td>Kâ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a malignant goddess</td></tr>
<tr><td>kâdǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>curse [‘word of Kâ’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kae</td> <td>n</td> <td>family elder (woman of grandmother’s generation not the háɔ)</td></tr>
<tr><td>káe</td> <td>n</td> <td>mountain</td></tr>
<tr><td>kàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>honor, respect; (politics) nationalist </td></tr>
<tr><td>kǎɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>rich, wealthy</td></tr>
<tr><td>kàɔdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>dishonorable, worthless</td></tr>
<tr><td>Kàɔjan</td> <td>n</td> <td>senate, upper house after 3562</td></tr>
<tr><td>kâɔrir</td> <td>a</td> <td>virgin (a term largely restricted to the sex trade) [Kebreni gauryr]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Kapáłà</td> <td>n</td> <td>the nation of Qapalya</td></tr>
<tr><td>ké</td> <td>n</td> <td>group, corps; army; political party</td></tr>
<tr><td>kéjan</td> <td>n</td> <td>military council, junta; the 3547 revolution</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛ̌kè</td> <td>n</td> <td>refreshment, relaxation; name of a city</td></tr>
<tr><td>kêŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>keng nut</td></tr>
<tr><td>kér</td> <td>n</td> <td>well-formed male ass; cute guy</td></tr>
<tr><td>kerán</td> <td>n</td> <td>leader of a Hyemsurist school [Uyseʔ keʔram]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛ</td> <td>pt</td> <td>suffix forming ordinals</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛ̀</td> <td>a</td> <td>open, opened</td></tr>
<tr><td>Kɛbrì</td> <td>n</td> <td>Kebri [Kebreni]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛ̀jɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>gang (euphemism) [‘open family’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>older sister</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛs</td> <td>pp</td> <td>outside, out of</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛsje</td> <td>a</td> <td>outer; foreign</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛslɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>outsider, foreigner</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛsná</td> <td>n</td> <td>outside, exterior</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛsŋǎ </td> <td>n</td> <td>the exterior or physical world</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛsrè</td> <td>n</td> <td>the way of kɛsŋǎ, i.e. pursuing merely physical goals</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛssò</td> <td>n</td> <td>retail price; gross profit [‘outer price’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɛstɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>speak a foreign language; translate (into a foreign language)</td></tr>
<tr><td>kí</td> <td>n</td> <td>instant, moment</td></tr>
<tr><td>kǐ</td> <td>v</td> <td>hear, listen (sound in acc., person in abl.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>kìn</td> <td>v</td> <td>spank, swat</td></tr>
<tr><td>kis</td> <td>a</td> <td>other, another</td></tr>
<tr><td>kisbo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>something else, another thing, the other</td></tr>
<tr><td>kiskrɔ</td> <td>adv</td> <td>otherwise, some other way [‘other’ + instr.]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kislɔ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>someone else, another person, the other</td></tr>
<tr><td>kisná</td> <td>adv</td> <td>the other way, in the other direction; (n) length measurement of 8 kráɔ = 13.97 cm </td></tr>
<tr><td>kisnɛ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>some other time, another time</td></tr>
<tr><td>kisnèn</td> <td>pr</td> <td>elsewhere</td></tr>
<tr><td>klae</td> <td>cl</td> <td>later on (near past)</td></tr>
<tr><td>klâe</td> <td>v</td> <td>prepare or process (for further work or cooking); gut (a fish or animal); ferment (streff to reduce toxins, or the first stage in making beer); draft (a paper)</td></tr>
<tr><td>klâełu</td> <td>a</td> <td>prepared or porcessed (for further work); rudimentary</td></tr>
<tr><td>kláɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>safe, solid</td></tr>
<tr><td>klàɔ</td> <td>v</td> <td>display, show; have for sale or use; ready (a weapon)<br/>klāɔ pran na string a bow</td></tr>
<tr><td>kláɔdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>unsafe, risky</td></tr>
<tr><td>klè</td> <td>n</td> <td>a poison found in the jungle</td></tr>
<tr><td>klě</td> <td>v</td> <td>wear, be wearing; have (skin, plumage, decorations)</td></tr>
<tr><td>klɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>an older man</td></tr>
<tr><td>klɛ̌s</td> <td>n</td> <td>platform, table</td></tr>
<tr><td>klí</td> <td>n</td> <td>star</td></tr>
<tr><td>klîs</td> <td>v</td> <td>be used to, accustomed to; habit, custom</td></tr>
<tr><td>klo</td> <td>n</td> <td>snake</td></tr>
<tr><td>klós</td> <td>v</td> <td>mock, deride</td></tr>
<tr><td>klɔ́r</td> <td>n</td> <td>rage at someone for being the same way for years on end</td></tr>
<tr><td>klùŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>hate, despise</td></tr>
<tr><td>ko</td> <td>a</td> <td>young</td></tr>
<tr><td>kočìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>youth</td></tr>
<tr><td>kokó</td> <td>a</td> <td>idiotic, epic fail [Uyseʔ khokho ‘stupid’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kos</td> <td>n</td> <td>value, worth, virtue</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>skill</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɔr</td> <td>pt</td> <td>just now, a moment ago</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɔr</td> <td>v</td> <td>mark, signal, indicate</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɔ̀s</td> <td>pp</td> <td>over, above, on (top of)</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɔ̀skɔ̀s</td> <td>a</td> <td>overbearing, supercilious</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɔ̀sje</td> <td>a</td> <td>superior, upper</td></tr>
<tr><td>kɔ̀stló</td> <td>n</td> <td>military officer [‘over-leader’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>branch</td></tr>
<tr><td>krâe</td> <td>a</td> <td>blue</td></tr>
<tr><td>krâerǐŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>Adurise (i.e. southern race) [‘blue-skin’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krán</td> <td>n</td> <td>fiasco, fuckup [Uyseʔ khram ‘bother’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krǎná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>upward (in a tree) [‘branch side’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kráɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>fingernail, toenail; base length measurement (1.746 cm) </td></tr>
<tr><td>kràɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>salt</td></tr>
<tr><td>kràɔjùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>salt flat [‘salt place’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krǎr</td> <td>v</td> <td>practice, test</td></tr>
<tr><td>kre</td> <td>cl</td> <td>imperative particle</td></tr>
<tr><td>krê</td> <td>n</td> <td>deed, action, feat</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>left side; the left thumb; 16</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɛ̀je</td> <td>a</td> <td>left-hand; on the left</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɛn</td> <td>cl</td> <td>here</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɛnná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>on this side (of)</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɛ̌s</td> <td>v</td> <td>tie, tie down</td></tr>
<tr><td>kri</td> <td>a</td> <td>full; packed, overflowing; complete</td></tr>
<tr><td>kribún</td> <td>n</td> <td>pace (step with both feet); length measurement of 48 kráɔ = 83.8 cm [‘complete foot']</td></tr>
<tr><td>krìdi</td> <td>n</td> <td>printed book [Keb. kriidi]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krìdiłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>printing</td></tr>
<tr><td>krìdibrɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>printing press</td></tr>
<tr><td>krin</td> <td>cl</td> <td>until, up to</td></tr>
<tr><td>kriniŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>area measurement (73.6 ha) ['full turn']</td></tr>
<tr><td>krò</td> <td>v</td> <td>end, finish</td></tr>
<tr><td>kròje</td> <td>a</td> <td>last, final</td></tr>
<tr><td>kròłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>finished, done, over with</td></tr>
<tr><td>kroŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>stupid, dumb</td></tr>
<tr><td>Kròŋǎkáe</td> <td>n</td> <td>the high mountains south of Belesao [‘end of the world mountains’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kror</td> <td>a</td> <td>dim, not bright [‘stupid’ + dim.]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krordɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>not clever but not stupid either</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ</td> <td>cl</td> <td>instrumental case marker</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ̀</td> <td>v</td> <td>thunder</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ̀čùŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>cannon [‘thunder-catapult’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔn</td> <td>n</td> <td>raft, punt, cargo boat</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>ladle, serve</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ̌ŋčɛ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>ladle, spoon [‘serve-tool’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ̌ŋčɛ́r</td> <td>n</td> <td>small spoon</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ̀prùr</td> <td>n</td> <td>gunpowder [‘thunder dust’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ̀tlá</td> <td>n</td> <td>gun, musket [‘thunder-hurl’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>krɔ̀r</td> <td>n</td> <td>type of long bean; sheath</td></tr>
<tr><td>kru</td> <td>cj</td> <td>rather than, and not</td></tr>
<tr><td>krú</td> <td>n</td> <td>liver; source of base (more masculine) emotions</td></tr>
<tr><td>krúprô</td> <td>a</td> <td>anxious about being a father for the first time</td></tr>
<tr><td>krútle</td> <td>a</td> <td>irrational, emotional, masculine[‘liverish’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ku</td> <td>n</td> <td>strip, band</td></tr>
<tr><td>kú</td> <td>a</td> <td>pregnant</td></tr>
<tr><td>kûn</td> <td>a</td> <td>bold, brave, daring</td></tr>
<tr><td>kûndɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>cowardly (of females)</td></tr>
<tr><td>kúŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>Uytainese [‘Krwŋ’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Kúŋsàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>Uytai [‘Krwŋ country’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kùr</td> <td>v</td> <td>aim; steer, navigate (a ship)</td></tr>
<tr><td>kùrhès</td> <td>n</td> <td>magnet; compass [‘steering metal’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kùrłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>navigation [‘aim study’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kûr</td> <td>n</td> <td>wheel [Uyseʔ kwer]</td></tr>
<tr><td>kûrkrɔn</td> <td>n</td> <td>wagon, cart [‘wheel-raft’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>la</td> <td>cl</td> <td>causative</td></tr>
<tr><td>láe</td> <td>q</td> <td>second</td></tr>
<tr><td>lâe</td> <td>n</td> <td>virtue, decency</td></tr>
<tr><td>láepɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>resentment over having to permanently take a second position [‘second-disease’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lâetɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the ideal husband (esp. in the devotion cults, submissive to the point of grotesquerie)</td></tr>
<tr><td>lamítɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>(slang) hottie, a man who makes you swoon [‘makes wet’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lán</td> <td>n</td> <td>grace</td></tr>
<tr><td>làn</td> <td>v</td> <td>bite</td></tr>
<tr><td>làɔ</td> <td>v</td> <td>set aside; pay rent or taxes</td></tr>
<tr><td>làɔr</td> <td>n</td> <td>portion; rent, taxes</td></tr>
<tr><td>lé</td> <td>n</td> <td>an ethnonym, originally a dynasty (the root of Belesao)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ledí</td> <td>n</td> <td>lens; glasses [Keb. leidi]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ledíłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>optics</td></tr>
<tr><td>Léłas</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Lé Sea (gulf of the ocean just north of Belesao)</td></tr>
<tr><td>lèlěs</td> <td>n</td> <td>wing [redup. of ‘feather’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lěs</td> <td>n</td> <td>feather</td></tr>
<tr><td>Létɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the language of Belesao</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>female</td></tr>
<tr><td>Lɛn</td> <td>n</td> <td>the main river of Belesao</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɛ̌r</td> <td>n</td> <td>tongue</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɛ̌rmɔ́r</td> <td>n</td> <td>cunnilingus [‘tongue-labia’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lí</td> <td>a</td> <td>happy</td></tr>
<tr><td>Lín</td> <td>n</td> <td>a goddess of playful, uncareful, and lustful personality</td></tr>
<tr><td>línhù</td> <td>v</td> <td>screw, have sex with (vulgar; of males) [‘enter pussy’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>línmo</td> <td>n</td> <td>female genitals, vulva [‘Lín organ’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>línnɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>vagina [‘genitals-interior’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>líŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>good</td></tr>
<tr><td>líŋŋáe</td> <td>n</td> <td>favor, esteem [‘good eye’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>líŋnɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>holiday [‘good day’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>líŋrɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>lusty lad, nice piece of ass [‘good crotch’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Líŋsàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>paradise [‘good country’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lîs</td> <td>n</td> <td>lake</td></tr>
<tr><td>lír</td> <td>n</td> <td>pussy [dim. of Lín]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lîr</td> <td>n</td> <td>pond</td></tr>
<tr><td>lírhù</td> <td>v</td> <td>fuck, have sex with (very vulgar; of males) [‘enter vagina’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lón</td> <td>q</td> <td>512 (10008); a battalion of 512 soldiers</td></tr>
<tr><td>loŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>wonder, marvel</td></tr>
<tr><td>loŋje</td> <td>a</td> <td>wonderful, marvelous</td></tr>
<tr><td>los</td> <td>a</td> <td>carefree, easygoing</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>woman, matron; wife</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɔkos</td> <td>n</td> <td>personal merit, character, temperament [‘person-worth’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɔlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>crowd, people [redup. of ‘woman’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɔ̂n</td> <td>v</td> <td>hurt, harm</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɔnù</td> <td>n</td> <td>lesbianism, lesbian sex [‘woman-love’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɔnùlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>lesbian</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɔs</td> <td>v</td> <td>live, reside</td></tr>
<tr><td>lɔtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>human being [‘woman-man’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lù</td> <td>v</td> <td>birth; be born</td></tr>
<tr><td>lǔ</td> <td>v</td> <td>sing</td></tr>
<tr><td>Lǔ </td> <td>n</td> <td>a god of ambiguous gender, musical, vain [‘song’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lǔdǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>song, music (as sounds)</td></tr>
<tr><td>lùje</td> <td>a</td> <td>by birth, natal<br/>lùje nás a man’s father by birth (as opposed to his father-in-law)</td></tr>
<tr><td>lǔłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>music (as an art) [‘song study’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lǔlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>musician</td></tr>
<tr><td>Lùłɔ̌r</td> <td>n</td> <td>the mountains east of Mɔłɔsɔu [‘east elcari’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lún</td> <td>n</td> <td>hole; window</td></tr>
<tr><td>lùná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>east [‘sunrise direction’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Lùní</td> <td>n</td> <td>the capital of Ânhɛ̀ [‘east port’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Lǔpɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a name for the old god Hír [‘singing god’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>lûr</td> <td>n</td> <td>younger sister</td></tr>
<tr><td>lús</td> <td>v</td> <td>find</td></tr>
<tr><td>lǔtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>bard (of hunter/gatherer times); male musician</td></tr>
<tr><td>łá</td> <td>n</td> <td>enthusiasm, excitement</td></tr>
<tr><td>łǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>water; juice, liquid</td></tr>
<tr><td>łâ</td> <td>a</td> <td>lucky</td></tr>
<tr><td>làe</td> <td>n</td> <td>peace</td></tr>
<tr><td>łán</td> <td>v</td> <td>run a family or institution from a secondary position</td></tr>
<tr><td>łáɔ</td> <td>v</td> <td>dream</td></tr>
<tr><td>łàɔ</td> <td>v</td> <td>wrap, fold; dress, put on (clothes)</td></tr>
<tr><td>łàɔdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>naked for religious reasons [‘clothes-less’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łàɔrá</td> <td>n</td> <td>skirt; clothes, outfit [‘wrap-cloth’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łár</td> <td>a</td> <td>drunk [dim. of ‘water’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łárdǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a joke that’s only funny when you’re drunk [‘drunk-word’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łas</td> <td>n</td> <td>sea, ocean; also worshipped as a (male) god, wild, strong, and conceited</td></tr>
<tr><td>łasdrûr</td> <td>n</td> <td>ktuvok [‘sea monster’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łasje</td> <td>n</td> <td>marine, maritime; narcissistic, exciting and wild but dangerous</td></tr>
<tr><td>Łaskrɛnsàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>Arcél [for Łaskrɛnnásàɔ ‘this side of sea land’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łasná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>north [‘sea direction’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Łasnɛ̀sàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>Ereláe [‘across sea land’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łasní</td> <td>n</td> <td>port, harbor [‘sea gate’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Łata</td> <td>n</td> <td>a city in Mɔłɔsɔu [Hake Lyata ‘city’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łǎtrô</td> <td>n</td> <td>swamp rat [‘water rat’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łe</td> <td>n</td> <td>fire, flame</td></tr>
<tr><td>łéŋ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>they, them</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛ</td> <td>v</td> <td>rot, spoil, become corrupt</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>monsoon</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>rotten, spoiled, corrupted; (in Jɔ́sism) the powers that be, the corrupt establishment</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛłudɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>unspoiled, uncorrupted</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛ̌n</td> <td>n</td> <td>dinner, (main) meal</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛ́ŋ</td> <td>adv</td> <td>much more than; most</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛ̀r</td> <td>n</td> <td>a long light dress in Uytainese style [Uyseʔ hler]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛ́s</td> <td>n</td> <td>roof, ceiling</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɛ́sná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>upstairs, upward</td></tr>
<tr><td>łi</td> <td>n</td> <td>an ethnonym for a western Bé people, locally łei [from Łima]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łìn</td> <td>v</td> <td>kiss</td></tr>
<tr><td>Łima</td> <td>n</td> <td>the main river in Łeisau [from Linaic]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Łimaní</td> <td>n</td> <td>the capital of Łeisau</td></tr>
<tr><td>Łimatú</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Linaic people of the upper Łei [‘Łima people’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łin</td> <td>cl</td> <td>like, in the way of</td></tr>
<tr><td>łíŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>adept, graduate (of a school or workshop)</td></tr>
<tr><td>łís</td> <td>pr</td> <td>you all (more than a few)</td></tr>
<tr><td>łìs</td> <td>a</td> <td>merry, joyful</td></tr>
<tr><td>Łisàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the nation of Łeisau</td></tr>
<tr><td>łó</td> <td>v</td> <td>study</td></tr>
<tr><td>Łójùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>Schools Quarter</td></tr>
<tr><td>łónèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>school, seminary [‘study building’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɔ̌</td> <td>v</td> <td>there is, there are; exist, be (existential)</td></tr>
<tr><td>łón</td> <td>a</td> <td>newly and happily pregnant</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɔŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>go (on business, for some time, but with the expectation of returning)</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɔ̌r</td> <td>n</td> <td>elcar</td></tr>
<tr><td>łɔ̂s</td> <td>md</td> <td>may (be allowed); allowed, permissible</td></tr>
<tr><td>łu</td> <td>cl</td> <td>past tense</td></tr>
<tr><td>łuhì</td> <td>n</td> <td>streff</td></tr>
<tr><td>łun</td> <td>v</td> <td>meditate, reflect</td></tr>
<tr><td>łún</td> <td>n</td> <td>circle</td></tr>
<tr><td>łuŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>year</td></tr>
<tr><td>łùr</td> <td>q</td> <td>4096 (10,0008); an army of 4096 soldiers</td></tr>
<tr><td>łùrjan</td> <td>n</td> <td>high council of the old Lé army [‘council of łùr’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>łùrtró</td> <td>n</td> <td>general (commander of a łùr)</td></tr>
<tr><td>łǔr</td> <td>n</td> <td>guts, intestines</td></tr>
<tr><td>łûs</td> <td>v</td> <td>permit, allow</td></tr>
<tr><td>łusa</td> <td>n</td> <td>fermented streff</td></tr>
<tr><td>má</td> <td>pt</td> <td>question particle</td></tr>
<tr><td>màe</td> <td>n</td> <td>mistress (of an institution), abbess</td></tr>
<tr><td>mâe</td> <td>v</td> <td>braid, plait</td></tr>
<tr><td>mâeku</td> <td>n</td> <td>(narrow) waistband [‘braided band’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>màeŋor</td> <td>n</td> <td>bossy boy; a boy who acts like a girl [‘mistress-boy’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mahés</td> <td>n</td> <td>female prostitute [Keb. maḣec]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mán</td> <td>q</td> <td>no, none, not any of</td></tr>
<tr><td>mǎn</td> <td>v</td> <td>attack, assault</td></tr>
<tr><td>mánbo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>nothing</td></tr>
<tr><td>mǎnde</td> <td>v</td> <td>strip and abuse (a punishment or humiliation meted out by women on each other) [‘attack-strip’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mánhon</td> <td>a</td> <td>ineffable, undescribable; (philosophy) not assignable to human categories [‘without attributes’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mánlɔ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>no one, nobody</td></tr>
<tr><td>mánnɛ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>never</td></tr>
<tr><td>mánnèn</td> <td>pr</td> <td>nowhere</td></tr>
<tr><td>màɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>old</td></tr>
<tr><td>màɔčìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>old age [‘old season’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mǎɔmê</td> <td>n</td> <td>the capital of Mǎɔráŋ [‘Mǎɔ mouth’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mǎɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a river in Mǎɔráŋ; the Beic ethnic group living there</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mǎɔráŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a Beic nation [‘Mau valley’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mar</td> <td>pt</td> <td>now</td></tr>
<tr><td>mǎr</td> <td>pt</td> <td>tentative question particle [má + diminutive]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mǎs</td> <td>n</td> <td>sun, Ënomai; length measurement of 8 niŋ = 6.866 km </td></tr>
<tr><td>Mǎsdɛjùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Unsunlit Quarter of Jansɛ̀ [‘sun-not-place’, due to the darkness of its narrow streets]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mǎsdò</td> <td>n</td> <td>sunset, dusk; evening [‘sun death’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mǎsdòkáe</td> <td>n</td> <td>the western mountains [‘sunset mountains’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mǎslù</td> <td>n</td> <td>sunrise, dawn [‘sun birth’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mǎslùkáe</td> <td>n</td> <td>the mountains separating Belesao from Mɔłɔsɔu [‘sunrise mountains’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mê</td> <td>n</td> <td>mouth; delta, river mouth</td></tr>
<tr><td>mě</td> <td>n</td> <td>cat</td></tr>
<tr><td>mêhón</td> <td>n</td> <td>fellatio [‘mouth-penis’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>měr</td> <td>n</td> <td>kitty, kitten [‘cat’ + dim.]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɛ̂n</td> <td>v</td> <td>discard, throw out, leave (an object)</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɛ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>idea; mental image, imagination</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɛ</td> <td>cl</td> <td>about, as to, regarding; than</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɛ̌</td> <td>pt</td> <td>well... (marker for dispreferreds)</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>teach, instruct (student in dative, topic in acc.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɛ̌s</td> <td>a</td> <td>blunt, dull</td></tr>
<tr><td>mǐ</td> <td>v</td> <td>see, look at; regard</td></tr>
<tr><td>mîn</td> <td>n</td> <td>tree</td></tr>
<tr><td>mínmê</td> <td>n</td> <td>treemouth, a large, agile lizard which hunts in trees</td></tr>
<tr><td>mînnèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>rain forest, jungle (i.e. the Bé environment) [‘tree-place’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>míŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>radiant, brilliant; brightly colored; (politics) liberal </td></tr>
<tr><td>mír</td> <td>n</td> <td>jug, jar, bottle</td></tr>
<tr><td>mîr</td> <td>v</td> <td>serve, contribute</td></tr>
<tr><td>mímí</td> <td>a</td> <td>wet, sexually excited</td></tr>
<tr><td>mo</td> <td>n</td> <td>organ, feature</td></tr>
<tr><td>mǒ</td> <td>cj</td> <td>but, however</td></tr>
<tr><td>mô</td> <td>cl</td> <td>disposal clitic</td></tr>
<tr><td>moŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>lip</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ̀</td> <td>a</td> <td>hard</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ̌</td> <td>n</td> <td>refresh, restore, stimulate</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ̀čɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>hardroot [‘hard root’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ̀lɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>an ethnonym for an eastern Beic people [‘hard women’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mɔ̀lɔsàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Beic nation east of Belesao, native Mɔłɔsɔu [‘Mɔłɔ nation’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ̀nɔ̌</td> <td>n</td> <td>a fruit resembling pineapple [‘hard fruit’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>bone</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ́ŋtle</td> <td>a</td> <td>bony</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ́ŋtlùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>a man who tries to help but only makes things worse [‘bony elbow’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ̌páŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>lunch, supper (subsidiary meal) [‘refresh-meal’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ́r</td> <td>n</td> <td>labia</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ̀tlìn</td> <td>v</td> <td>rule as a tyrant [‘hard-rule’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mɔ̀tló</td> <td>n</td> <td>tyrant, dictator [‘hard-mistress’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>mûn</td> <td>n</td> <td>nawr bull</td></tr>
<tr><td>mûnje</td> <td>a</td> <td>stubborn or dangerous like a nawr bull</td></tr>
<tr><td>múr</td> <td>n</td> <td>a type of tree</td></tr>
<tr><td>na</td> <td>cl</td> <td>accusative case marker</td></tr>
<tr><td>ná</td> <td>n</td> <td>direction, side</td></tr>
<tr><td>nà</td> <td>n</td> <td>heart; seat of intuition and will</td></tr>
<tr><td>nǎ</td> <td>v</td> <td>spring, hop</td></tr>
<tr><td>nàdòłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>damned, unenlightened [‘dead heart’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nae</td> <td>pp</td> <td>apart from, except, without</td></tr>
<tr><td>náe</td> <td>n</td> <td>pride</td></tr>
<tr><td>naečár</td> <td>n</td> <td>opening bid; an unreasonable proposal, esp. one meant to snag the unwary [Uyseʔ nyoytsal ‘selling price’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nàje</td> <td>a</td> <td>disciplined, determined, intuitive, feminine [‘of the heart’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nàłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>interiorist or skeptical movement philosophy [‘heart school’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nàn</td> <td>a</td> <td>royal, governmental</td></tr>
<tr><td>nân</td> <td>n</td> <td>tooth</td></tr>
<tr><td>nânłún</td> <td>n</td> <td>gear [‘toothed-circle’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nànnèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>palace [‘royal building’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nânnon</td> <td>n</td> <td>customs duty [‘royal share’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nàŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>handsome, beautiful (of males)</td></tr>
<tr><td>nàɔ</td> <td>pt</td> <td>honorific for royals</td></tr>
<tr><td>nǎpran</td> <td>n</td> <td>crossbow [‘spring-bow’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nâr</td> <td>v</td> <td>work; make or craft</td></tr>
<tr><td>Nârjùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>Craft Quarter (of Jansɛ̀ and other cities)</td></tr>
<tr><td>nârnèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>workshop, factory</td></tr>
<tr><td>nàro</td> <td>a</td> <td>secret [‘in heart’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nás</td> <td>n</td> <td>father (i.e. mother’s husband)</td></tr>
<tr><td>né</td> <td>n</td> <td>sorghum</td></tr>
<tr><td>nê</td> <td>v</td> <td>smell</td></tr>
<tr><td>nèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>building, place</td></tr>
<tr><td>Nér</td> <td>n</td> <td>one of the old gods; ethnonym for the people of eastern Belesao</td></tr>
<tr><td>Nérsàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the nation of the Nér</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>day</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɛ̀</td> <td>pp</td> <td>across</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɛ̂</td> <td>v</td> <td>fear, be afraid of</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɛ̂nà</td> <td>n</td> <td>cowardice [‘fear-heart’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɛ̂nàje</td> <td>a</td> <td>cowardly</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɛ̂nɛ̂</td> <td>v</td> <td>be scared shitless of</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɛ̀r</td> <td>n</td> <td>hip</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɛ̀rrá</td> <td>n</td> <td>decorative loincloth (worn over the skirt) [‘hip-cloth’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ní</td> <td>n</td> <td>gate, portal; port</td></tr>
<tr><td>nín</td> <td>v</td> <td>search, seek</td></tr>
<tr><td>nîn</td> <td>v</td> <td>bring; produce, cause</td></tr>
<tr><td>Nìntú</td> <td>n</td> <td>Nyandai [Nyan + ‘people’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nînhé</td> <td>n</td> <td>produce, production, yield; results</td></tr>
<tr><td>nìní</td> <td>n</td> <td>mouse</td></tr>
<tr><td>niŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>turn; length measurement of 858 m </td></tr>
<tr><td>nîr</td> <td>v</td> <td>touch affectionately and intimately but without wanting to have sex</td></tr>
<tr><td>nîrdɛtɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>a sàtɛ who no longer touches you</td></tr>
<tr><td>nó</td> <td>n</td> <td>grandmother</td></tr>
<tr><td>non</td> <td>v</td> <td>share</td></tr>
<tr><td>nonnèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>customs office</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔ</td> <td>pp</td> <td>in</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔ̌</td> <td>n</td> <td>fruit</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔje</td> <td>a</td> <td>inner, interior</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔná</td> <td>n</td> <td>inside, interior</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔ́ŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>feeling slow and bloated (esp. by pregnancy)</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔŋǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the spirit realm underlying this world [‘inner world’]<br/>tǎn nɔŋǎ na become enlightened; pass on, leave the mortal world</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔŋàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>avatar, incarnation [‘embodiment’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔ̀r</td> <td>v</td> <td>push upriver, drag upstream</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔrè</td> <td>n</td> <td>the way of nɔŋǎ— pursuing righteousness without asceticism</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔ̀rná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>upriver</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔsò</td> <td>n</td> <td>wholesale price, producer’s cost; net profit [‘inner price’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nɔtǎn</td> <td>n</td> <td>enlightenment, spiritual discernment; death of the body [‘inner (world) knowledge’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nu</td> <td>n</td> <td>air</td></tr>
<tr><td>nú</td> <td>v</td> <td>rise; lift, raise</td></tr>
<tr><td>nù</td> <td>v</td> <td>love, appreciate<br/>jǎɔ nù na make love</td></tr>
<tr><td>núhoŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>get up (from a lying to a sitting position), wake up [‘rise-sit’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nújùn</td> <td>v</td> <td>stand up, get up [‘rise-stand]</td></tr>
<tr><td>númǎs</td> <td>n</td> <td>morning [‘sun rising sun’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>nún</td> <td>n</td> <td>womb, uterus</td></tr>
<tr><td>nurúrnèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>a Hyemsurist study center [half-calque on Uyseʔ nrulso]</td></tr>
<tr><td>núsùŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>hill [‘rising land’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋá</td> <td>n</td> <td>breast</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>world</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋáe</td> <td>n</td> <td>eye</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋâe</td> <td>n</td> <td>granddaughter</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋǎe</td> <td>n</td> <td>glyph, character [Uyseʔ nwai]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋâekriniŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>area measurement of 1/64 kriniŋ = 1.15 ha [‘granddaughter kriniŋ’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋâeniŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>length measurement of 1/64 niŋ = 670.4 m [‘granddaughter turn’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋan</td> <td>md</td> <td>habitual, habitually</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋán</td> <td>n</td> <td>ship, boat</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ŋánjùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Ship Quarter (neighborhood near the docks)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋánnèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>wharf, pier, dock; a Lé city [‘boat place’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋántló</td> <td>n</td> <td>ship captain</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>body, flesh; physical, material</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋǎɔ</td> <td>v</td> <td>swarm, infest, haunt (occupy a place in a bothersome way)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋàɔje</td> <td>a</td> <td>physical; real (not imaginary)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋàɔmɛ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>icon, image [‘physical idea’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋáɔr</td> <td>n</td> <td>the nawr ox</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋar</td> <td>n</td> <td>farm cat; a woman’s name</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋás</td> <td>n</td> <td>streff milk</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋássa</td> <td>n</td> <td>fermented ŋás</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋé</td> <td>pt</td> <td>used for ironic or sarcastic questions</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋê</td> <td>v</td> <td>worry, be anxious</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ŋɛ̌</td> <td>n</td> <td>one of Belesao’s rivers; an old god [apparently an old word for the mínmê lizard]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ŋɛ̌sɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>a city at the mouth of the Ŋě</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛ́</td> <td>v</td> <td>caress, fondle</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛ̀</td> <td>v</td> <td>desire, want</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛ̌n</td> <td>n</td> <td>a type of epidemic or plague which appeared in the 2700s</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>lacquer</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛ́ŋɛ́</td> <td>v</td> <td>have sex with (partner in comit.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛ́n</td> <td>v</td> <td>bow, bend; ritual of reverence</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛŋhé</td> <td>n</td> <td>lacquerware [‘lacquer goods’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛpo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>this thing</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛr</td> <td>pr</td> <td>this person</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛs</td> <td>q</td> <td>this, these</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛ̀s</td> <td>a</td> <td>straight</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛ̀saɔr</td> <td>n</td> <td>novice in a religious institution [‘want-leave’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛsdǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the latter, what was just said [‘these words’]<br/>Ŋɛsdǐŋ na tɔ̌ŋ That’s what I say; so I say; believe it</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɛsŋɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>today [‘this day’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋi</td> <td>a</td> <td>little, small</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋì</td> <td>v</td> <td>twist, coil; spin (cloth)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋín</td> <td>n</td> <td>a type of large perfumed flower</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋir</td> <td>n</td> <td>murk, muck</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋirdǐŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>insincere, duplicitous [‘murk-word’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋír</td> <td>md</td> <td>might, maybe; possible</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋǐs</td> <td>n</td> <td>knife, blade</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋisò</td> <td>a</td> <td>cheap [‘small price’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ŋisú</td> <td>n</td> <td>a goddess (of sunny and helpful disposition)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋisús</td> <td>n</td> <td>compact disk [‘small record’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋó</td> <td>v</td> <td>roll, roll up</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋódà</td> <td>n</td> <td>sweet roll, dessert roll [‘roll-leaf’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ŋòŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a god, depicted as a small naked fat man, associated with misery and degradation</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋor</td> <td>n</td> <td>boy (under 12)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋôr</td> <td>n</td> <td>ball; a projectile for a catapult</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋôrbís</td> <td>n</td> <td>ball game</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋôrčùŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>catapult [‘ball-throw’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋòs</td> <td>n</td> <td>caterpillar</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋɔ́</td> <td>n</td> <td>nipple</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋǔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>wet, moist</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋú</td> <td>v</td> <td>beg</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋúlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>beggar</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋù</td> <td>v</td> <td>swallow; (slang) have sex with a man</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋûn</td> <td>n</td> <td>aunt: younger sister of mother</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋur</td> <td>n</td> <td>flat</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋǔr</td> <td>a</td> <td>horny, aroused [‘a little wet’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ŋurbo</td> <td>n</td> <td>sandal [‘flat thing’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ó</td> <td>a</td> <td>beautiful, lovely (of females)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ôn</td> <td>n</td> <td>ancestor (any deceased member of one’s jɔ)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ór</td> <td>v</td> <td>start, begin</td></tr>
<tr><td>os</td> <td>n</td> <td>chest, trunk</td></tr>
<tr><td>ɔ̌s</td> <td>n</td> <td>a large bird whose male is noted for extravagant plumage</td></tr>
<tr><td>ɔ̌stɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a male ɔ̌s; a man who bosses his wife around</td></tr>
<tr><td>ɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>flower</td></tr>
<tr><td>ɔ̌</td> <td>intj</td> <td>acknowledgment</td></tr>
<tr><td>ɔ̀ŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>still; ongoing</td></tr>
<tr><td>pà</td> <td>v</td> <td>stop (to stop someone is a causative)</td></tr>
<tr><td>pǎ</td> <td>v</td> <td>be (predicative)</td></tr>
<tr><td>pǎe</td> <td>md</td> <td>hypothetically, supposing, if</td></tr>
<tr><td>pàn</td> <td>n</td> <td>an ethnonym for the people of upper Belesao</td></tr>
<tr><td>Pànkrê</td> <td>n</td> <td>the ancient epic of Belesao</td></tr>
<tr><td>páŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>food, meal</td></tr>
<tr><td>pàŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>book [Uyseʔ pham]</td></tr>
<tr><td>páɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>vision</td></tr>
<tr><td>paɔró</td> <td>n</td> <td>provocation, paradox (esp. as spiritual teaching) [Uyseyʔ pyauhroy]</td></tr>
<tr><td>papa</td> <td>n</td> <td>baby</td></tr>
<tr><td>pǎr</td> <td>n</td> <td>dynasty</td></tr>
<tr><td>pás</td> <td>a</td> <td>enough, sufficient</td></tr>
<tr><td>pàs</td> <td>v</td> <td>break, malfunction, not work</td></tr>
<tr><td>pâs</td> <td>n</td> <td>the west; the westernmost Beic people</td></tr>
<tr><td>pàshón</td> <td>n</td> <td>impotent man</td></tr>
<tr><td>pàsłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>broken</td></tr>
<tr><td>Pâsní</td> <td>n</td> <td>the main city of Pahsau, locally Pahni [‘west port’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Pâssàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the westernmost Beic nation, locally Pahsau</td></tr>
<tr><td>pé</td> <td>a</td> <td>crazy, mad</td></tr>
<tr><td>pè</td> <td>v</td> <td>fly</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>goddess, god; (esp. in philosophy) Divinity</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛ̌</td> <td>v</td> <td>float, drift (in the air)</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛbru</td> <td>a</td> <td>afflicted by the gods [‘goddess-lame’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛčó</td> <td>n</td> <td>temple [‘god-house’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛje</td> <td>a</td> <td>divine, godly</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>priest, priestess [‘god-woman’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛnae</td> <td>a</td> <td>godless, immoral [‘without goddess’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>m</td> <td>nephew</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛpé</td> <td>a</td> <td>insane, deranged, cursed by the gods [‘goddess-crazy’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛpɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>mortally ill; sick as a dog [‘goddess-sick’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛ̌s</td> <td>v</td> <td>owe</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛ̌ssò</td> <td>n</td> <td>debt [‘owe-money’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɛ̌té</td> <td>n</td> <td>petay, a weed and the cloth made from its seeds [‘float-brush’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pín</td> <td>v</td> <td>grasp with the beak or muzzle; fuck (of females)</td></tr>
<tr><td>pláe</td> <td>n</td> <td>soup</td></tr>
<tr><td>plâɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>belly, stomach</td></tr>
<tr><td>plè</td> <td>v</td> <td>sell</td></tr>
<tr><td>plɛ̀ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>tread on, trip on<br/>plɛ̀ŋ bún na get in the way, be a handful</td></tr>
<tr><td>plɛ́s</td> <td>v</td> <td>steal, rob</td></tr>
<tr><td>plɛ́słu</td> <td>a</td> <td>stolen, illicit</td></tr>
<tr><td>plî</td> <td>v</td> <td>ford, wade</td></tr>
<tr><td>plîjùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>ford, crossing</td></tr>
<tr><td>plitrír</td> <td>a</td> <td>stinking, fetid, esp. the smell of a ship after a months-long journey [Uyseʔ pwithril ‘smelly’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>plô</td> <td>n</td> <td>brain; (v) tan</td></tr>
<tr><td>plôłu</td> <td>n</td> <td>leather; (a) tanned</td></tr>
<tr><td>plɔ̀r</td> <td>v</td> <td>lie, deceive</td></tr>
<tr><td>plù</td> <td>n</td> <td>shit</td></tr>
<tr><td>pô</td> <td>pr</td> <td>he, him</td></tr>
<tr><td>pó</td> <td>n</td> <td>island</td></tr>
<tr><td>pôn</td> <td>v</td> <td>become, change (new state takes ta)</td></tr>
<tr><td>pos</td> <td>pr</td> <td>his</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>sick</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɔ̌ŋčìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>sickness [‘sick-season’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɔ̌ŋdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>healthy</td></tr>
<tr><td>pɔ̌r</td> <td>n</td> <td>a hallucinogenic plant</td></tr>
<tr><td>prá</td> <td>a</td> <td>tall, high</td></tr>
<tr><td>prábo</td> <td>n</td> <td>shoe, boot, sandal with ankle band [‘high thing’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>práe</td> <td>n</td> <td>the spinnerfly (source of silk)</td></tr>
<tr><td>prámǎs</td> <td>n</td> <td>noon [‘high sun’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pran</td> <td>n</td> <td>crescent; bow</td></tr>
<tr><td>práŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>think about, consider; calculate, reckon</td></tr>
<tr><td>prâr</td> <td>n</td> <td>crime, wrongdoing</td></tr>
<tr><td>pràɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>arrow</td></tr>
<tr><td>Prátɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the consort of the god Sâɔ</td></tr>
<tr><td>pré</td> <td>a</td> <td>tasty, delicious</td></tr>
<tr><td>prépré</td> <td>a</td> <td>very tasty; sexy</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɛ̀</td> <td>a</td> <td>empty</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɛn</td> <td>v</td> <td>boil</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɛ̀n</td> <td>md</td> <td>seem; seeming, apparent; appearance; aspect (of a deity)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Prɛnpó</td> <td>n</td> <td>an island north of Mɔłɔsɔu [‘boiling island’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɛ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>male pectorals; the male chest</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɛ́ŋprɛ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a well-built man, an Adonis [redup. of ‘chest’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɛ́s</td> <td>a</td> <td>malicious, devious, tricky</td></tr>
<tr><td>pri</td> <td>v</td> <td>be lying; rest</td></tr>
<tr><td>prín</td> <td>n</td> <td>amber</td></tr>
<tr><td>pro</td> <td>n</td> <td>balance, stasis</td></tr>
<tr><td>prô</td> <td>a</td> <td>newly pregnant and anxious about it</td></tr>
<tr><td>prołó</td> <td>n</td> <td>accounting [‘balance study’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɔ̌</td> <td>a</td> <td>cold</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɔ̌ná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>south [‘cold direction’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɔ̌ŋǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the world outside the rain forest: the mountains and the south of Arcél [‘cold-world’ or ‘south-world’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɔ̌r</td> <td>a</td> <td>cool, not too cold</td></tr>
<tr><td>prɔ̌s</td> <td>n</td> <td>forehead, temple</td></tr>
<tr><td>prû</td> <td>v</td> <td>wander, ramble</td></tr>
<tr><td>prǔn</td> <td>v</td> <td>pick up; glean; try out</td></tr>
<tr><td>prùŋ </td> <td>a</td> <td>ancient</td></tr>
<tr><td>prûŋ</td> <td>q</td> <td>32768 (100,0008)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Prùŋpàŋ </td> <td>n</td> <td>the Ancient Books, early Bé writings</td></tr>
<tr><td>prùr</td> <td>n</td> <td>dust, powder</td></tr>
<tr><td>púdàn</td> <td>n</td> <td>an emperor of the nomads [Ōkmisan pūdam]</td></tr>
<tr><td>púdàntú</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Ōkmisan [‘pūdam people’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>pùŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>river</td></tr>
<tr><td>pùŋbús</td> <td>n</td> <td>chart, map (compare hɛ̀bús) [‘river drawing’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>púr</td> <td>v</td> <td>try, attempt</td></tr>
<tr><td>pùr</td> <td>n</td> <td>brook, stream [dim. of ‘river’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rá</td> <td>n</td> <td>cloth, fabric</td></tr>
<tr><td>rà</td> <td>v</td> <td>sleep; sleep with (takes comit.)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ràbo</td> <td>n</td> <td>hammock, bed [‘sleep thing’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ràe</td> <td>n</td> <td>a flowering vine; also an epic heroine</td></tr>
<tr><td>rǎe</td> <td>v</td> <td>execute (orders), see to it, administer</td></tr>
<tr><td>rǎetló</td> <td>n</td> <td>minister, administrator</td></tr>
<tr><td>ràjùs</td> <td>v</td> <td>sleep around, sleep outside one’s jɔ (esp. of women) [‘bed-camp’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rán</td> <td>n</td> <td>storm; heavy wind</td></tr>
<tr><td>ráŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>valley</td></tr>
<tr><td>Rãɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the main river of Mɔłɔsɔu, native Rou</td></tr>
<tr><td>ràprû</td> <td>n</td> <td>one who sleeps with all the men in her jɔ’s age cohort [‘wander-bed’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ràr</td> <td>adv</td> <td>too, too much</td></tr>
<tr><td>ràrmɛ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the sense of one’s eyes glazing over from poring too closely over long lists of information [‘too much ideas’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ras</td> <td>cl</td> <td>since, after</td></tr>
<tr><td>re</td> <td>cl</td> <td>dative case marker</td></tr>
<tr><td>rè</td> <td>n</td> <td>way, method</td></tr>
<tr><td>rèn</td> <td>a</td> <td>quiet, silent</td></tr>
<tr><td>rèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>(archaic) leader of a hunting party [‘quiet’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Rènpɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a name of the old god Jǐn [‘god who is a rèn’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rês</td> <td>n</td> <td>cup</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>girl (under 12), child</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɛn</td> <td>v</td> <td>follow</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɛŋ</td> <td>md</td> <td>should, ought to; recommended, moral</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɛ̀s</td> <td>v</td> <td>fight, go to war</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɛ̀sbo</td> <td>n</td> <td>weapon, arms [‘fight-thing’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɛ̀sčìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>war [‘fighting season’]<br/>nɔje rɛ̀sčìŋ civil war</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɛ̀sdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>pacifist; tolerant [calque on Uyseʔ thanen]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ri</td> <td>n</td> <td>brother</td></tr>
<tr><td>rí</td> <td>a</td> <td>fascinating, compelling, enchanting</td></tr>
<tr><td>rǐ</td> <td>cj</td> <td>because</td></tr>
<tr><td>rín</td> <td>n</td> <td>silver</td></tr>
<tr><td>rǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>skin</td></tr>
<tr><td>rǐr</td> <td>n</td> <td>ear [‘little skin’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rís</td> <td>v</td> <td>push</td></tr>
<tr><td>ro</td> <td>cl</td> <td>by, at, in(basic location)</td></tr>
<tr><td>rò</td> <td>q</td> <td>two</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɔ̌</td> <td>v</td> <td>fall back in love with someone against one’s better judgment</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ròbùŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a city on the Ŋɛ̌</td></tr>
<tr><td>ròs</td> <td>q</td> <td>plus two (combining form)</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>crotch; genitals (of either sex)</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɔ̌ŋkɔ̀s</td> <td>n</td> <td>loincloth [‘over crotch’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɔ̀r</td> <td>q</td> <td>eight [fusion of rò čɛr ‘two hands’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɔ̌r</td> <td>a</td> <td>warm, lukewarm [dim. of ‘hot’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rɔ̌s</td> <td>a</td> <td>hot</td></tr>
<tr><td>rú</td> <td>n</td> <td>insect, bug</td></tr>
<tr><td>rǔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>gem, jewel</td></tr>
<tr><td>run</td> <td>a</td> <td>yellow</td></tr>
<tr><td>ruŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>buzz, hum, murmur</td></tr>
<tr><td>ruŋrú</td> <td>n</td> <td>fly [‘buzz-insect’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rur</td> <td>pr</td> <td>we all (more than a few)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Rurpɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>Bé religion and philosophy [‘our gods/divinity’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>rǔs</td> <td>a</td> <td>wrong, incorrect</td></tr>
<tr><td>sa</td> <td>n</td> <td>liquor, wine</td></tr>
<tr><td>sà</td> <td>n</td> <td>cousin: younger female in same age cohort within jɔ; any female within one’s age cohort</td></tr>
<tr><td>sàčó</td> <td>n</td> <td>tavern, pub, bar [‘drink-house’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sáe</td> <td>n</td> <td>sky, heavens</td></tr>
<tr><td>sáečìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>month (28 days, period of Iliažë) [‘sky-season’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sáemàe</td> <td>n</td> <td>the moon Iliažë; a goddess of cold intelligence [‘sky-mistress’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sáetɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the moon Iliacáš [‘sky-man’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sáeùn</td> <td>n</td> <td>cloud [‘sky-fog’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sàn</td> <td>n</td> <td>grass</td></tr>
<tr><td>sáŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>daughter</td></tr>
<tr><td>sáŋniŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>length measurement of 1/8 niŋ = 107.3 m [‘daughter turn’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sàɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>country, nation; sub-federal state of Belesao</td></tr>
<tr><td>sâɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>light (in density); the four light elements; the deity of Sâɔism</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sàɔjon</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Mɔłɔ parliament, locally Sɔujɔn [‘national council’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>saɔr</td> <td>v</td> <td>leave, depart, go away; abandon; repent, apologize, be sorry for</td></tr>
<tr><td>saɔrdǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>apology [‘leave-word’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>saɔrlɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>ascetic [‘leaving (the world) woman’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>saɔrtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>younger male family member [‘leaving man’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>saɔrtɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>say goodbye, close (a speech or article) [‘leave-speak’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sǎɔs</td> <td>v</td> <td>wash, clean</td></tr>
<tr><td>sǎɔsłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>clean, cleaned</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sâɔtlu</td> <td>n</td> <td>Sâɔism</td></tr>
<tr><td>sâr</td> <td>n</td> <td>night</td></tr>
<tr><td>sârjâ</td> <td>v</td> <td>be unfaithful, cheat (esp. of men) [‘night-cheat’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sârjâtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>an unfaithful, cheating man</td></tr>
<tr><td>sârjin</td> <td>n</td> <td>moon [‘night-noble’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sârjir</td> <td>n</td> <td>the moon Naunai [‘little moon’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sârpáɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>night instruction for adolescents [‘night-vision’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sàs</td> <td>n</td> <td>deer</td></tr>
<tr><td>sàtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>cousin’s husband; the husbands within one age cohort<br/>rà sàtɛ kɛs ro commit adultery (lit. sleep outside the sàtɛ )</td></tr>
<tr><td>se</td> <td>pt</td> <td>subordinator</td></tr>
<tr><td>sé</td> <td>a</td> <td>first, chief</td></tr>
<tr><td>sê</td> <td>n</td> <td>color; paint</td></tr>
<tr><td>senɛ</td> <td>pt</td> <td>time subordinator</td></tr>
<tr><td>sero</td> <td>pt</td> <td>place subordinator</td></tr>
<tr><td>sérǎetló</td> <td>n</td> <td>chief minister [‘first minister’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>city, town</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̀je</td> <td>a</td> <td>urban</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̀ná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>towards town</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̌n</td> <td>v</td> <td>buy, purchase</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̌nhé</td> <td>n</td> <td>purchase (things bought), cargo</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̌nnèn</td> <td>n</td> <td>shop, store [‘buy-place’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>needle</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̌ŋbús</td> <td>v</td> <td>tattoo [‘needle-draw’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̌ŋbúsbo</td> <td>n</td> <td>tattoo</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛs</td> <td>cl</td> <td>ablative case marker</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɛ̀tló</td> <td>n</td> <td>mayor [‘city boss’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>si</td> <td>a</td> <td>fast, quick</td></tr>
<tr><td>sì</td> <td>v</td> <td>piss, urinate</td></tr>
<tr><td>sî</td> <td>v</td> <td>protect, hide</td></tr>
<tr><td>sìłǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>piss, urine</td></tr>
<tr><td>sîbó</td> <td>v</td> <td>spy on [‘hide-watch’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>silɛ̌r</td> <td>a</td> <td>glib, untrustworthy [‘fast tongue’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sín</td> <td>n</td> <td>bee</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sîpó</td> <td>n</td> <td>a city on the Lɛn, the Lé capital [‘protected island’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sǐr</td> <td>n</td> <td>nectar, sugar</td></tr>
<tr><td>slé</td> <td>v</td> <td>capture</td></tr>
<tr><td>slɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>fool, idiot<br/>jǎɔ slɛ na play the fool</td></tr>
<tr><td>slin</td> <td>n</td> <td>grandson</td></tr>
<tr><td>slìs</td> <td>a</td> <td>cruel, sadistic</td></tr>
<tr><td>slìsnà</td> <td>n</td> <td>cruelty [‘cruel heart’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>slù</td> <td>v</td> <td>dig</td></tr>
<tr><td>slǔr</td> <td>a</td> <td>dirty</td></tr>
<tr><td>so</td> <td>a</td> <td>cute; playful</td></tr>
<tr><td>só</td> <td>v</td> <td>blow</td></tr>
<tr><td>sò</td> <td>n</td> <td>type of small shell; money</td></tr>
<tr><td>sodlàɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>good-looking (esp. of men based on the face) [‘cute-face’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sòkos</td> <td>n</td> <td>value (of a thing), worth, price [‘money-value’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sòjí</td> <td>v</td> <td>bet, wager (for/against → near/far) [‘put money’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sòŋ</td> <td>pp</td> <td>far from</td></tr>
<tr><td>sòŋdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>not far, at a medium distance</td></tr>
<tr><td>sòŋje</td> <td>a</td> <td>far, distant</td></tr>
<tr><td>sòŋké</td> <td>n</td> <td>bow women, archery component of an army [‘far group’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɔ</td> <td>v</td> <td>eat</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɔn</td> <td>a</td> <td>black, dark; name of a goddess of authoritarian aspect who encourages hard work and discipline</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɔ́n</td> <td>a</td> <td>right, correct</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɔnhès</td> <td>n</td> <td>iron [‘dark metal’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sɔnjɔs</td> <td>n</td> <td>the founder of the Lé dynasty [‘black hair’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɔ́nłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>orthodoxy, correct teaching [‘right study’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɔnsín</td> <td>n</td> <td>hornet, bumblebee (a very large black bee) [‘black bee’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɔntlìn</td> <td>n</td> <td>authoritarianism, conservativism</td></tr>
<tr><td>sɔ̀r</td> <td>n</td> <td>social harmony [Uy. sur]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sôs</td> <td>v</td> <td>make out, play or mess around sexually</td></tr>
<tr><td>sôstɛr</td> <td>n</td> <td>boy toy; a man good at lovemaking but too frivolous to marry</td></tr>
<tr><td>sú</td> <td>n</td> <td>grain, seed</td></tr>
<tr><td>sú</td> <td>n</td> <td>pair, couple; both</td></tr>
<tr><td>sǔ</td> <td>cj</td> <td>or</td></tr>
<tr><td>sùŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>soil, earth, ground</td></tr>
<tr><td>súŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>add</td></tr>
<tr><td>Súŋdǐŋ </td> <td>n</td> <td>the ancient Commentaries [‘add words’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sùŋdlán</td> <td>n</td> <td>geomancy [‘soil-foretelling’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sùŋná</td> <td>pp</td> <td>downstairs, to the ground</td></tr>
<tr><td>súr</td> <td>q</td> <td>24 [‘little pair (of thumbs)’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sus</td> <td>a</td> <td>additional, extra, more</td></tr>
<tr><td>sǔs</td> <td>v</td> <td>suck; (caus.) nurse</td></tr>
<tr><td>súsno</td> <td>n</td> <td>phonograph record [Keb. <i>syḣknu</i>]</td></tr>
<tr><td>sǔsłǎ</td> <td>n</td> <td>milk (of humans only) [‘suck-liquid’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ta</td> <td>cl</td> <td>as, in a state of, while being</td></tr>
<tr><td>táe</td> <td>a</td> <td>short</td></tr>
<tr><td>tàe</td> <td>n</td> <td>fragrance, perfume</td></tr>
<tr><td>tàenîn</td> <td>n</td> <td>a fragrant red flower</td></tr>
<tr><td>tákis</td> <td>n</td> <td>horse [Ōkmisan htāknejig]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tàn</td> <td>q</td> <td>combining form of 64</td></tr>
<tr><td>tǎn</td> <td>v</td> <td>know, knowledge, science; know how to; knowing</td></tr>
<tr><td>táo</td> <td>v</td> <td>move; exchange, trade</td></tr>
<tr><td>târ</td> <td>q</td> <td>seven</td></tr>
<tr><td>tás</td> <td>v</td> <td>hit<br/>tás čǐ na scratch (person in dat.) [‘hit the itch’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tâs</td> <td>q</td> <td>plus seven (combining form)</td></tr>
<tr><td>tâɔ</td> <td>adv</td> <td>only, just</td></tr>
<tr><td>te</td> <td>cl</td> <td>question element</td></tr>
<tr><td>té</td> <td>n</td> <td>underbrush; a weed or useless plant (in a garden plot)</td></tr>
<tr><td>tèŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>teng bean</td></tr>
<tr><td>tetán</td> <td>n</td> <td>Uytainese martial arts [Uyseʔ theʔthan]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>male; son; young man</td></tr>
<tr><td>Tɛbétlìn</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Men’s Empire (historical dynasty) [‘male empire’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛn</td> <td>v</td> <td>release, liberate; (intr.) escape, get free; (philosophy) salvation, englightenment, release from rebirth</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ́n</td> <td>v</td> <td>shine, give (much) light; light</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ̌n</td> <td>a</td> <td>true</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ̌n</td> <td>v</td> <td>release (something penned or tied up); ignite</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛbâełó </td> <td>n</td> <td>movement for male equality</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ̌ndɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>false [‘untrue’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ̌ndǐŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>fact; truth [‘true word’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Tɛnłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>a school of Hyemsur which offers fast enlightenment</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ̌nnâr</td> <td>a</td> <td>genuine, real (not faked) [‘true-craft’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ̌nnârdɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>fake [‘not-true-craft’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛr</td> <td>n</td> <td>lad, guy, dude [‘man’ + dim.]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɛ́r</td> <td>v</td> <td>glow, be alight, give (a little) light [dim. of ‘shine’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tí</td> <td>v</td> <td>run</td></tr>
<tr><td>tin</td> <td>a</td> <td>sharp; acidic</td></tr>
<tr><td>tîn</td> <td>v</td> <td>attach, join; assemble (things)</td></tr>
<tr><td>tînłó</td> <td>n</td> <td>carpentry, joinery</td></tr>
<tr><td>tǐ</td> <td>v</td> <td>make out, engage in foreplay</td></tr>
<tr><td>tǐkɔ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>a man highly skilled at foreplay</td></tr>
<tr><td>tín</td> <td>a</td> <td>pretty, lovely (suggestion of immaturity)</td></tr>
<tr><td>tir</td> <td>n</td> <td>dagger [‘sharp’ + dim.]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tîr</td> <td>n</td> <td>twig [dim. of ‘stick’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tîs</td> <td>n</td> <td>stick</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlá</td> <td>v</td> <td>hurl, toss</td></tr>
<tr><td>tláe</td> <td>a</td> <td>long; (n) length; measurement of 24 kráɔ = 41.9 cm </td></tr>
<tr><td>tlâe</td> <td>n</td> <td>territory, region</td></tr>
<tr><td>tláejɔs</td> <td>a</td> <td>with long and beautiful hair (associated with aristocratic men)</td></tr>
<tr><td>tláekú</td> <td>a</td> <td>the state of being overdue for birth [‘long-pregnant’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tláerá</td> <td>n</td> <td>robe [‘long dress’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlàn</td> <td>q</td> <td>64 (1008); a company of 64 soldiers</td></tr>
<tr><td>tláɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>new</td></tr>
<tr><td>tláɔlù</td> <td>n</td> <td>rebirth (as a punishment for a sinful life) [‘new birth’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Tláɔsɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>the capital of Mɔłɔsɔu, native Klɔusa [‘new city’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlǎɔ</td> <td>a</td> <td>heavy</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlǎɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>heaviness; the four heavy elements; sin</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlǎɔje</td> <td>a</td> <td>sinful</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlar</td> <td>n</td> <td>spark, glint</td></tr>
<tr><td>tle</td> <td>q</td> <td>many, much</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlě</td> <td>a</td> <td>wide, thick</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlebo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>many things</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlějɔs</td> <td>n</td> <td>a shaman, or his/her dreadlocks [‘thick-hair’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlěku</td> <td>n</td> <td>wide waistband, cummerbund [‘wide band’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlelɔ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>many people</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlenèn</td> <td>pr</td> <td>many places</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlenɛ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>often</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɛ̀</td> <td>a</td> <td>damn, fucking [abbreviation of tlɛ̀nłu ‘exiled’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɛ́</td> <td>a</td> <td>bare, naked</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɛ̀n</td> <td>v</td> <td>exile, reject, cast out</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɛ̀nłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>exiled, rejected</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɛ́rɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>bare-ass; someone too poor or unsophisticated to wear clothes [‘bare-crotch’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɛ̂ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>flap, wave</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlìn</td> <td>v</td> <td>administer, rule; realm</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlìnčǎŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>coup d’état, revolution [‘seize power’]<br/>jǎɔ tlìnčǎŋ na seize power</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlìndɛ</td> <td>a</td> <td>humane, benevolent (as a ruler) [calque on Uyseʔ pauʔen]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlìnje</td> <td>a</td> <td>administrative, governmental</td></tr>
<tr><td>tliŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>blink, flash; moment, instant</td></tr>
<tr><td>tliŋhás</td> <td>n</td> <td>firefly [‘blink-beetle’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlís</td> <td>a</td> <td>smooth</td></tr>
<tr><td>tló</td> <td>n</td> <td>leader (e.g. of a work group or a military unit), mistress, master</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlô</td> <td>v</td> <td>pull</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlǒn</td> <td>v</td> <td>defeat, vanquish</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɔr</td> <td>q</td> <td>most</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɔrbo</td> <td>pr</td> <td>most things</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɔrlɔ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>most people</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɔrnɛ</td> <td>pr</td> <td>most times</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɔrnèn</td> <td>pr</td> <td>most places</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlɔ́s</td> <td>n</td> <td>wood</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlu</td> <td>v</td> <td>adore, worship</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlu</td> <td>n</td> <td>adoration, worship; sect</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlú</td> <td>v</td> <td>pierce, stab</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlù</td> <td>v</td> <td>rain</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlúčɛ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>drill, borer [‘piercing tool’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlúr</td> <td>n</td> <td>a soft banana-like fruit</td></tr>
<tr><td>tlùs</td> <td>n</td> <td>elbow</td></tr>
<tr><td>toŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>hunt</td></tr>
<tr><td>Tɔ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>a goddess, of dark, sullen aspect</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>v</td> <td>speak, say, tell; speech, utterance</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɔ̌ŋdɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>silence, esp. as a religious practice</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɔ̀pɔ̌ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>depression, melancholy [‘Tɔ̀ sickness’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tɔrjú</td> <td>n</td> <td>interest (financial) [Uyseʔ turtsil]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tràe</td> <td>a</td> <td>annoyed at being pregnant at an inconvenient time</td></tr>
<tr><td>trâe</td> <td>cj</td> <td>in order that, with the intention that</td></tr>
<tr><td>tran</td> <td>pp</td> <td>away from, against</td></tr>
<tr><td>tranbís</td> <td>n</td> <td>keep-away, tag; a game involving running from someone</td></tr>
<tr><td>Tràŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>an early dynasty</td></tr>
<tr><td>tràŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>queen [from the dynasty; originally Tràŋháɔ ‘head of the Tràŋ’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tràŋtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>queen’s consort</td></tr>
<tr><td>trǎɔ</td> <td>prn</td> <td>I, me</td></tr>
<tr><td>trâɔ</td> <td>n</td> <td>waterfall</td></tr>
<tr><td>tras</td> <td>prn</td> <td>my, mine</td></tr>
<tr><td>Tré</td> <td>n</td> <td>the old god of sex</td></tr>
<tr><td>tré</td> <td>n</td> <td>drone; a cheating male [from Tré]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tres</td> <td>n</td> <td>aunt: older sister of mother</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛ</td> <td>v</td> <td>bless, sanctify</td></tr>
<tr><td>Trɛlù</td> <td>n</td> <td>the first queen of Belesao, 2267 [‘blessed birth’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛłu</td> <td>a</td> <td>blessed, holy</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛ̌n</td> <td>n</td> <td>head</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛ̌nja</td> <td>v</td> <td>fall on the head; interrupt</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛ̌n</td> <td>n</td> <td>stone, rock</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛrè</td> <td>n</td> <td>the way of divinity— rejecting the physical world and directly pursuing absorption into the All-Soul</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛ́s</td> <td>pt</td> <td>excuse me! [fusion of trɛ ís na ‘bless you’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛ̌s</td> <td>v</td> <td>reach, attain, come upon, encounter (+dat)</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɛ̌słó</td> <td>n</td> <td>the Attainment or individualistic school [‘attain-school’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tríbo</td> <td>n</td> <td>pouch, bag [trírbo ‘hide-thing’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trír</td> <td>n</td> <td>fur, hide; (v) skin</td></tr>
<tr><td>trírčɛ́ŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>scraper, tool for skinning</td></tr>
<tr><td>trírrá</td> <td>n</td> <td>barbarian, rustic [‘fur-clothes’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>tris</td> <td>v</td> <td>play, have fun</td></tr>
<tr><td>trô</td> <td>n</td> <td>rat; a very insulting term for men</td></tr>
<tr><td>trǒ</td> <td>a</td> <td>sour [named for the fruit]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trǒnɔ̌</td> <td>n</td> <td>sourfruit; a type of fruit</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɔs</td> <td>n</td> <td>box, container</td></tr>
<tr><td>trɔ̌s</td> <td>n</td> <td>powdered dried hardroot flour</td></tr>
<tr><td>trǒtɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>a man who never seems to talk [‘sour-man’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trû</td> <td>v</td> <td>float (in the water)</td></tr>
<tr><td>trûklɛ̌s</td> <td>n</td> <td>raft [‘float-platform’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trukà</td> <td>n</td> <td>truca (fiber palm)</td></tr>
<tr><td>trun</td> <td>cl</td> <td>later on, future</td></tr>
<tr><td>Trunčìŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>the future</td></tr>
<tr><td>trunnɛ</td> <td>n</td> <td>tomorrow [‘next day’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trǔŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>bad, evil</td></tr>
<tr><td>trǔŋhɔ́</td> <td>n</td> <td>evil spirit, demon [‘evil-soul’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trǔŋłɔ̌r</td> <td>n</td> <td>múrtany [‘bad elcar’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>trǔŋŋɛ̀</td> <td>n</td> <td>perversion (esp. incest)</td></tr>
<tr><td>tú</td> <td>n</td> <td>people, nation</td></tr>
<tr><td>tùn</td> <td>v</td> <td>quarrel; fight among themselves, like men or young animals</td></tr>
<tr><td>tur</td> <td>cl</td> <td>on, at, in (sometime within a time period)</td></tr>
<tr><td>tûr</td> <td>v</td> <td>squeeze</td></tr>
<tr><td>ǔdù</td> <td>n</td> <td>a large parasitic worm, similar to a guinea worm; a woman who refuses to work or support her family</td></tr>
<tr><td>un</td> <td>n</td> <td>animal</td></tr>
<tr><td>ùn</td> <td>a</td> <td>transparent, clear</td></tr>
<tr><td>ùnçín</td> <td>n</td> <td>jellyfish</td></tr>
<tr><td>ǔn</td> <td>cl</td> <td>particle for requests</td></tr>
<tr><td>ùndàn</td> <td>n</td> <td>glass (material) [‘clear ceramic’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ùndǐŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>sincere, without duplicity or double dealing</td></tr>
<tr><td>ùnrês</td> <td>n</td> <td>glass (for drinking) [‘clear-cup’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>úŋ</td> <td>a</td> <td>horny (of males, usually despective)</td></tr>
<tr><td>ùŋ</td> <td>n</td> <td>fog; steam</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ùŋbéłó </td> <td>n</td> <td>the Steam University</td></tr>
<tr><td>úŋhór</td> <td>n</td> <td>horndog, a man consumed with sex</td></tr>
<tr><td>ûr</td> <td>n</td> <td>worm</td></tr>
<tr><td>ùr</td> <td>n</td> <td>spell, incantation</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ùrlǔ </td> <td>n</td> <td>the most ancient Bé scriptures [‘spell-songs’]</td></tr>
<tr><td>ús</td> <td>n</td> <td>path, trail; road</td></tr>
</table></blockquote>
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